Joyful Mysteries of the Holy Rosary, For Children

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L’Encyclopédie de l’histoire du Québec / The Quebec History Encyclopedia

Religious History of Canada

[This text was written in 1948. For the full citation, see the end of the text.]

By the religious history of Canada is meant something distinct from the histories of individual churches or religious bodies (which are dealt with separately), or perhaps rather something that has been the sum of all their efforts. The religious life of the country as a whole has had its ups and downs, its periods of prosperity and depression, caused by factors lying outside the history of individual denominations; and it is this phase of Canadian history which is here briefly traced. To describe it fully would necessitate extended excursions into political, social, and even economic history; but it may be possible, even in a brief article, to indicate some of the most important factors affecting the religious life of Canada in its various stages.

The Religious History of New France .

When French colonization in Canada began, only a few years had elapsed since the promulgation of the Edict of Nantes in 1598 [see text of the Edict ], which gave to Roman Catholics and Huguenots in France parallel rights. Consequently, in the early period of colonization in Canada both Protestants and Roman Catholics took part. Monts was a Huguenot, and he took out with him to Acadia in 1604 not only Protestant and Roman Catholic settlers, but also a Protestant minister and a Roman Catholic priest. "I have seen our curb and the minister," wrote Champlain , who was geographer to the expedition, "fall to with their fists on questions of faith." The Caën brothers [ Guillaume and Émery ] were Huguenots; and it is said that Champlain himself, though a good Catholic, came of Huguenot parentage. The Huguenots were, in fact, among the most progressive of the early traders and settlers who came to Canada . But the danger of religious strife in the colony, such as that which had rent the mother country with civil war, was perhaps such that the French government wished to eliminate it; possibly, also, the Huguenots had proved too independent of royal control. In the charter granted in 1627, therefore, to the Company of New France, it was stipulated that no colonists should be sent out to New France who were not Roman Catholics; and this prohibition remained in effect during the whole period of French rule. A very few Protestants appear to have settled in Canada after 1627, but their numbers were negligible; and New France was thus almost exclusively Roman Catholic.

From the economic point of view, the exclusion of the Huguenots had probably a bad effect in Canada , since they would have been a valuable element in the colony; but from the religious point of view, it is possible that their exclusion was fortunate. It gave the Roman Catholic church in New France a dominant position which affected the life of the whole people, and which that church still retains in the province of Quebec . Especially after Laval [alternatively, consult this biography of Bishop Laval ] came to Canada in 1659 as bishop, the church exerted a profound influence on the government of the colony. The bishop was given a seat on the Sovereign or Superior Council ; and the parish, rather than the seigniory, became the effective unit for local government. The seignior was not, as might have been expected, the most important person in the French-Canadian village; the real leaders of the people were the parish priest and the captain of militia [Many historians would debate the accuracy of this statement]. From an early date, various religious bodies, such as the Jesuits and the Sulpicians , acquired extensive and valuable land grants in Canada ; and these did not diminish the influence of the Church. For a time, indeed, the Church sought to dictate the future of the colony. The early missionaries who came to Canada found in the Indians a wonderful opportunity for saving souls. Among the Algonkian and Huron tribes, and even among the Iroquois , they established missions, which, for sheer and fearless heroism, rank with Christian missions anywhere else. If they had had their way, New France would have been a glorified mission-station. In their zeal, they sometimes preceded the fur-traders in opening up new country; and with the fur-traders they waged a long battle for the welfare of the Indians. They objected to the use of "fire-water" by the fur-traders as an article of barter with the Indians; and the Church nearly succeeded in obtaining its prohibition. Even in the so-called "Brandy Parliament" of 1678, composed of the leading inhabitants engaged in trade, the Church gained a substantial measure of support for its point of view. Eventually, however, its point of view failed to prevail, largely because of the opposition of Frontenac . "Even if our brandy does them [the Indians] harm," argued Frontenac, "it at least brings them into contact with Catholicism. To do away with this trade will only drive them to rum and Protestantism."

The British Conquest .

The conquest of Canada by British arms in 1763 threatened a complete reversal of the religious history of New France . The Royal Proclamation of 1763 promised Canada "the enjoyment of the benefit of the laws of Our realm of England "; and the royal instructions to General Murray , the first civil governor of the province, required him to admit of no "Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction of the See of Rome." He was also required to give all possible encouragement to the erection of Protestant schools and churches, "to the end that the Church of England may be established both in principles and practice, and that the said inhabitants may by degrees be induced to embrace the Protestant religion." Canada was to become, thus, a newer New England . But, under the influence of Murray and ofCarleton , this policy was soon reversed. In 1766 permission was given for the consecration of Briand as bishop of Quebec with the title of superintendent; and in 1774 the Quebec Act gave to the Roman Catholic Church in Canada the right of collecting tithes by process of law, thus making it, if not an established church, at any rate an endowed one. At the same time, little was done to introduce Protestant clergymen into the colony. Two or three French-speaking Anglican clergymen were settled in Quebec , Three Rivers , and Montreal ; but it was not until 1793 that an Anglican bishop of Quebecwas appointed, or any serious attempt was made to provide for the religious needs of the growing Protestant element in the colony.

The United Empire Loyalists .

Until the influx of the United Empire Loyalists at the close of the American Revolution , it seemed probable that Canada would, as Sir Guy Carleton prophesied, "to the end of time be peopled by the Canadian [i.e., French-Canadian] race." But the American Revolution upset this prophecy by giving to British North America a considerable Protestant population. There were among the United Empire Loyalists a number of Roman Catholics; but the overwhelming majority of them were Protestants . Some wereAnglicans , some were Presbyterians , some were Lutherans . The problem of providing for their religious welfare was one with which the British government did not attempt to cope. A few chaplains of Loyalist regiments settled in Nova Scotia , New Brunswick , and Upper Canada ; but apart from this the Loyalists were left without religious ministrations. It was only with the passing of the Constitutional Act of 1791 that any real attempt was made to deal with the problem of the religious welfare of the new Protestant English-speaking element in British North America .

The Constitutional Act .

It has commonly been said that the Constitutional Act "established" the Church of England in Canada . It made provision for setting apart what came to be known as the"Clergy Reserves" ¾ lands "equal in value to the seventh part" of all lands granted. These were to be for the "support and maintenance of the Protestant clergy within the said provinces"; and by "Protestant" was meant apparently "Church of England", for in a subsequent section provision was made for erection of "parsonages or rectories, according to the establishment of the Church of England." Whether this made the Church of England the established church of Upper and Lower Canada , is a nice question. There is no doubt that the Church of England had already been made the established church in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick ; and there is little doubt that the intention of the British government was to make it the established church in the Canadas . For many years, moreover, the champions of the Church of England in Upper Canada , such as John Strachan , stoutly maintained that this church was established in the colony by law. But it is perhaps more accurate to say that it was, if not an established church, at any rate an endowed and privileged church.

These clauses of the Constitutional Act had unhappy results. If the Act had unequivocally established the Church of England in the Canadas , and if the British government had given the Church of England adequate support in the colony, it might have been better for the religious welfare of Upper Canada at least. Unfortunately, the British government confined its efforts to sending out only a few garrison chaplains and a few missionaries of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel; and these were located only in the chief centres of population. Little attempt was made to look after the religious needs of the scattered settlers on the land. In these circumstances, Methodist preachers from the United States , and later from England , found a wonderful opportunity for spreading the gospel according to John Wesley. Methodist circuit-riders went through the rural parts of Upper Canada , and provided the scattered settlers with the only religious ministrations they knew. From an early date the Methodists became, consequently, a large and important body in Upper Canada , as well as in other provinces. Scottish immigration brought about the introduction of Presbyterian and Roman Catholic missionaries; and there sprang up also Baptist , Mennonite , and Tunker communities. The result was thatRichard Cartwright , though a member of the Church of England, was compelled to confess that "only one-twelfth" of the people of Upper Canada adhered to the Church of England. In these circumstances, the privileged position of the Church of England came in for attack by the other denominations, with the result that for more than half a century sectarian strife ran rife in Upper Canada .

The chief bone of contention was, of course, the Clergy Reserves. The Church of Scotland put in a claim for a share of these, since it was not only a "Protestant" church, but also the established Church of Scotland ; and other denominations followed in its wake. To these claimants the British government threw a few "sops to Cerberus"; but these failed to still the clamour, and it was said by William Lyon Mackenzie himself that the Clergy Reserves were one of the most important causes of the Rebellion of 1837 in Upper Canada . It was not until the Clergy Reserves were secularized in 1854 that they ceased to trouble the waters of Canadian politics. There were, however, lesser bones of contention. One was the question of marriage. By the Marriage Act of 1793, only Church of England clergymen and magistrates were empowered to perform marriages, according to the rites of the Church of England. Later, the right of performing marriage was given to Presbyterians and other Calvinists ; but it was not until 1830 that Methodist ministers were able to perform marriage. Another bone of contention was education. The Church of England strove at first to control not only the grammar schools but also higher education; and its attempt was finally defeated only when King's College , Toronto , was secularized, and transformed into the University of Toronto , in 1850.

Religious Progress.

During this period, however, despite the bitterness of sectarian strife, it is clear that religion in Canada made a decided advance. There is abundant evidence that among the pioneer communities of English-speaking Canada, most of which were in the beginning without regular religious ministrations, religious and moral standards were very low. For this evidence, see John T. McNeill, Religious and moral conditions among the Canadian pioneers (American Society of Church History, Papers, vol. viii, 1928). But during the nineteenth century, the various religious denominations in Canada , supported by various missionary organizations in England and Scotland , displayed such energy that there wassoon not a village in Canada in which a church had not been established, and in many villages there were several churches established. Of importance, in this religious advance, was the establishment of Sunday schools, and the religious training given in them to the young. The sectarian rivalry of the first half of the nineteenth century had at least this good result that it roused an interest in religion, and gave to the most remote communities the ministrations of the Christian faith. The duplication of religious services in small communities in Canada had by 1867 gone to such an extent that shortly after this date (if not, indeed, before it) there arose a tendency toward the amalgamation of religious denominations, such as the various sects of Methodists, Presbyterians, and Baptists. This movement was accelerated by the decline in the importance of doctrinal standards consequent on the promulgation of the theory of evolution and the advent of "higher criticism"; and it culminated in 1925 in the union of the Methodists, the Congregationalists, and a large number of Presbyterians in the United Church of Canada.

Religion and Politics.

Since the exclusive claims of the Church of England to be an established Church in the British North American colonies were defeated, there has been in Canada religious equality ¾ with this exception that, in the province of Quebec , the Roman Catholic church is still in a privileged position. It is still in this province entitled to collect tithes from Roman Catholics by process of law; it has control of the education of Roman Catholics in the province, the Protestant schools being "separate schools"; and there is some doubt as to the extent to which the canon law of the Roman Catholic church governs in Quebec even the marriage of Roman Catholics with Protestants. There has also, at various times, been some question as to the extent to which the Roman Catholic church in Quebec was entitled to go in controlling the political opinions of its communicants. The ultramontane tendencies of some of the French-Canadian Roman Catholic clergy led them, in their struggle with the anti-clerical Institut Canadien , in their opposition to Sir Wilfrid Laurier in 1896, and on other occasions, to attempt to dictate to the French-Canadian habitant how he should vote; but on each occasion an appeal to Rome by the more liberal-minded French Canadians has brought about an abatement or moderation of the clerical attitude. It is only fair to add that at other times some clergymen of Protestant denominations have sought to exercise an undue political influence over their flocks; though they have not perhaps enjoyed the exceptional position that the clergy of the Roman Catholic church enjoy in Quebec , or made use of the threat of excommunication.

Home Missions.

Any sketch of the religious history of Canada would be incomplete without reference to the missionary efforts of the Canadian churches in Canada itself. From the time when the Jesuit missionaries established themselves in Huronia in 1639 until the time when Protestant missionaries went into the Yukon with the gold rush in 1897, the churches have followed close on the heels of exploration and colonization, and have sometimes preceded them. Some of the most glorious pages of Canadian history are those which relate to the story of what are called "home missions". The history of the Canadian West would be very different to-day if it were not for the forward-looking policy adopted by the churches of eastern Canada when the West was in the making. The settlement of the West took place under much more favourable auspices, as regards religion, than did the settlement of the East; and the West owes an undischargeable debt of gratitude to the many nameless "sky-pilots" who presided over its spiritual birth.

Bibliography.

[The reader should consult the text on the Roman Catholic Church and Quebec found elsewhere at the site]

Though there are many books dealing with the history of individual churches or religious organizations in Canada , some of which will be found listed under their appropriate headings, there is no general history of religious movements in Canada. There are, however, a number of books dealing with special periods or phases of Canadian religious history which deserve mention. Among these are M. Eastman, Church and state in early Canada (Edinburgh, 1915), J. Croil, Genesis of churches in the United States of America, in Newfoundland and the Dominion of Canada (Montreal, 1907), U. M. Sait, Clerical control in Quebec (Toronto, 1911), W. A. Riddell, The rise of ecclesiastical control in Quebec (New York, 1916), and C. E. Silcox, Catholics, Jews, and Protestants: A study of relationships in the United States and Canada (New York, 1934).

Source: W. S. WALLACE, "Religious History", in W. Stewart WALLACE, The Encyclopedia of Canada, Vol. 3, Toronto, University Associates of Canada, 1948, 396p., pp. 186-191.

http://faculty.marianopolis.edu/c.belanger/quebechistory/encyclopedia/CanadaReligiousHistory_000.htm

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http://podcastmcq.org/Nouvelle-France/index-en.html

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* New FAQ's

* Why do some refer to Easter as Easter and others use Lent or Pentecost and what is the significance of each?
* Why do we put ash on our forehead?
* Where do the ashes come from?
* When do I wash the Ashes off my face?
* What is Fat Tuesday?
* What is Pentecost?
* What is the significances of the 40 weekdays before Easter?
* Why is Lent observed in only some Christian Churches?
When Does Lent End?
Ashes
Giving something up
Scrutinies: Examining our lives
Scrutinies and Penance
Prayer, fasting and almsgiving
Stations of the Cross
Blessed palms

The key to understanding the meaning of Lent is simple: Baptism. Preparation for Baptism and for renewing baptismal commitment lies at the heart of the season. Since the Second Vatican Council, the Church has reemphasized the baptismal character of Lent, especially through the restoration of the Catechumenate and its Lenten rituals. Our challenge today is to renew our understanding of this important season of the Church year and to see how we can integrate our personal practices into this renewed perspective.

Why is Baptism so important in our Lenten understanding? Lent as a 40-day season developed in the fourth century from three merging sources. The first was the ancient paschal fast that began as a two-day observance before Easter but was gradually lengthened to 40 days. The second was the catechumenate as a process of preparation for Baptism, including an intense period of preparation for the Sacraments of Initiation to be celebrated at Easter. The third was the Order of Penitents, which was modeled on the catechumenate and sought a second conversion for those who had fallen back into serious sin after Baptism. As the catechumens (candidates for Baptism) entered their final period of preparation for Baptism, the penitents and the rest of the community accompanied them on their journey and prepared to renew their baptismal vows at Easter.

Lent, then, is radically baptismal. In this Update we'll consider some of the familiar customs of Lent and show how we can renew some of our Lenten customs to bring forth the baptismal theme.

Why do some refer to Easter as Easter and others use Lent or Pentecost and what is the significance of each?

In the Catholic Church, the year is divided into liturgical seasons based on significant events in the life and earthly ministry of Jesus Christ as well as the great Mysteries of our Faith. The Church Year, as it is called, begins with Advent, which is celebrated as four weeks of preparation before Christmas.

Catholics are called to live liturgically by actually entering into the Church year. Such an approach to life and worship is not simply about re-enacting the great events of Salvation history - or what is called the "Paschal Mystery", the life, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Rather, it is an invitation to all the baptized, living their lives now in the Church which is the Body of Christ and thus to enter into the deeper meaning of our faith; to experience our Salvation as an ongoing process as we cooperate with grace and allow the Holy Spirit, the same Spirit which raised Jesus from the dead, to change us from within making us more like Him.

Easter, where we celebrate the resurrection of Christ, is preceded by Lent, a season of self-examination, fasting and penance in preparation for our Easter Day observance. So Lent is a 40 period prior to Easter Day. Also, beginning the Sunday before Easter we have Holy Week, with Palm Sunday (also called Passion Sunday), Holy Thursday, Good Friday and Holy Saturday.

Easter Day actually begins on Saturday evening with the Easter Vigil. The celebration of the Vigil is in keeping with the Jewish tradition of celebrating the day from sundown to sundown. Thus, the Saturday evening Vigil Mass is a Sunday Mass.

Easter is also a season that lasts 50 days and ends on Pentecost Sunday, which is an observance based on the second chapter of the Book of Acts where the Holy Spirit came down upon the apostles. This day is considered the birthday of the Church.

Why do we put ash on our forehead?

Ashes are applied to our forehead in the sign of the cross as the words, "Remember, you are dust and to dust you shall return" are spoken to us. The other formula which is used, "Turn away from sin and be faithful to the Gospel" emphasizes our call to continual conversion and holiness of life. This act symbolizes our mortality as well as our need for ongoing repentance. It is a reminder that this life is short and merely a foreshadowing of what we shall become through the redemption of Jesus Christ on the cross. The work of our redemption will not be complete until we are raised from the dead, in resurrected bodies like His own and called to the eternal communion of heaven.

Where do the ashes come from?

The ashes for Ash Wednesday normally are made from blessed palm branches from the previous Palm Sunday. The ashes are sprinkled with Holy Water and incensed before distribution.

When do I wash the Ashes off my face?

There is no specific instruction on how long ashes are to be worn. You can, in fact, wash them off immediately after the service if you want. Many people choose to wear their ashes for the remainder of the day both as a reminder of their own mortality and as a witness before those around that they are a follower of Christ and are entering into a season of examination and abstinence.

What is Fat Tuesday?

As the Church anticipates the Season of Lent, the evening before Ash Wednesday is called "Fat Tuesday" or Shrove Tuesday. Rich foods are consumed as the faithful prepare for time of fasting, abstinence, confession and penance.

Customs and practices arose for Fat Tuesday where people would empty their pantries of many items restricted during Lent

One of the terms often used with Mardi Gras is "carnival." We picture huge public celebrations or parades. Anyone who visits one of the big carnivals held on this day usually bring back stories of self-indulgence and hedonism that make most people blush.

Ironically, carnival comes from the Latin "carne vale" which means "farewell to meat" or "farewell to flesh" indicating the end to certain pleasures has come.

In some parts of the Christian world the commonly used term for the day is "Shrove Tuesday." To "shrive" means to present oneself for confession, penance and absolution. In some early practice, Lent was preceded by Shrovetide the week before Lent. The faithful were called to go to confession during that time in preparation for the Lenten observance.

The Catholic Encyclopedia explanation of Shrovetide includes a sentence from the Anglo-Saxon "Ecclesiastical Institutes." Translated from Theodulphus by Abbot Aelfric about A.D. 1000, it reads, "In the week immediately before Lent everyone shall go to his confessor and confess his deeds and the confessor shall so shrive him as he then may hear by his deeds what he is to do [in the way of penance]."

What is Pentecost?

Pentecost is a feast day based on the account in the second chapter of the Book of Acts where the Holy Spirit fell on the apostles as they were gathered together in the Upper Room. This is considered the birthday of the Church and the mission to evangelize the whole world.

The Catechism of the Catholic Church describes it as follows:
"On the day of Pentecost when the seven weeks of Easter had come to an end, Christ's Passover is fulfilled in the outpouring of the Holy Spirit, manifested, given, and communicated as a divine person: of his fullness, Christ, the Lord, pours out the Spirit in abundance.

"On that day, the Holy Trinity is fully revealed. Since that day, the Kingdom announced by Christ has been open to those who believe in him: in the humility of the flesh and in faith, they already share in the communion of the Holy Trinity. By his coming, which never ceases, the Holy Spirit causes the world to enter into the "last days," the time of the Church, the Kingdom already inherited though not yet consummated." (CCC 731,732)

What is the significances of the 40 weekdays before Easter?

The 40 days of Lent, which precedes Easter is based on two Biblical accounts: the 40 years of wilderness wandering by the Israelites and our Lord's 40 days in the wilderness at which point He was tempted by Satan.

Each year the Church observes Lent where we, like Israel and our Lord, are tested. We participate in abstinence, times of fasting, confession and acts of mercy to strengthen our faith and devotional disciplines. The goal of every Christian is to leave Lent a stronger and more vital person of faith than when we entered.

The Catechism of the Catholic Church states, "The seasons and days of penance in the course of the liturgical year (Lent, and each Friday in memory of the death of the Lord) are intense moments of the Church's penitential practice. These times are particularly appropriate for spiritual exercises, penitential liturgies and pilgrimages as signs of penance, voluntary self-denial such as fasting and almsgiving, and fraternal sharing (charitable and missionary works)." (CCC 1438)

Why is Lent observed in only some Christian Churches?

In the Protestant world, particularly among many evangelical denominations and independent churches, the Church Calendar is not observed. The seasons were omitted along with most of the sacraments and the use of liturgy in their approach to faith. These Christians do observe Christmas and Easter and some might even celebrate Pentecost.

When does Lent end?

Lent officially ends on Holy Thursday. That is when the "Triduum", great three Days of holy Thursday, Good Friday and Holy Saturday occur leading to Easter. Easter is not only a day but an Octave (eight day) celebration leading to a Season of the Church, Easter Season, which ends on Pentecost.

Ashes

Ash Wednesday liturgies are some of the best attended in the entire year. Some people suggest that is just because the Church is giving out something free, but I suspect there are deeper reasons! Ashes are an ancient symbol of repentance (sackcloth and ashes). They also remind us of our mortality ("remember that you are dust") and thus of the day when we will stand before God and be judged. This can be linked easily to the death and resurrection motif of Baptism. To prepare well for the day we die, we must die now to sin and rise to new life in Christ. Being marked with ashes at the beginning of Lent indicates our recognition of the need for deeper conversion of our lives during this season of renewal.

Giving something up

For most older Catholics, the first thought that Lent brings to mind is giving something up. In my childhood, the standard was to give up candy, a discipline that found suitable reward in the baskets of sugary treats we received on Easter. Some of us even added to the Easter surplus by saving candy all through Lent, stockpiling what we would have eaten had we not promised to give it up.

Some years ago a friend of mine told me that he had urged his children to move beyond giving up candy to giving up some habit of sin that marked their lives. About halfway through Lent he asked the children how they were doing with their Lenten promise. One of his young sons had promised to give up fighting with his brothers and sisters during Lent. When his father asked him how it was going, the boy replied, "I'm doing pretty good, Dad—but boy, I can't wait until Easter!"

That response indicates that this boy had only partly understood the purpose of Lenten "giving up." Lent is about conversion, turning our lives more completely over to Christ and his way of life. That always involves giving up sin in some form. The goal is not just to abstain from sin for the duration of Lent but to root sin out of our lives forever. Conversion means leaving behind an old way of living and acting in order to embrace new life in Christ. For catechumens, Lent is a period intended to bring their initial conversion to completion.

Scrutinies: Examining our lives

The primary way that the Church assists the catechumens (called the elect after the celebration of the Rite of Election on the First Sunday of Lent) in this conversion process during Lent is through the celebration of the rites called Scrutinies. These ritual celebrations on the Third, Fourth and Fifth Sundays of Lent are communal prayers celebrated around the elect to strengthen them to overcome the power of sin in their lives and to grow in virtue. To scrutinize something means to examine it closely. The community does not scrutinize the catechumens; the catechumens scrutinize their own lives and allow God to scrutinize them and to heal them.

There is a danger in celebrating the Scrutinies if the community thinks of the elect as the only sinners in our midst who need conversion. All of us are called to continuing conversion throughout our lives, so we join with the elect in scrutinizing our own lives and praying to God for the grace to overcome the power of sin that still infects our hearts.

Many parishes today seek to surface the concrete issues that the elect need to confront; these issues then become the focus of the intercessions during the Scrutinies. Some parishes extend this discernment process to the wider community so that all are called to name the ways that evil continues to prevent them from living the gospel fully. Even if the parish does not do this in an organized way, every Catholic should spend some time reflecting on what obstacles to gospel living exist in his or her own life. Then when the Scrutinies are celebrated, we will all know that the prayers are for us as well as for the elect.

Taking seriously this dynamic of scrutiny and conversion gives us a richer perspective on Lenten "giving up." What we are to give up more than anything else is sin, which is to say we are to give up whatever keeps us from living out our baptismal promises fully. Along with the elect we all need to approach the season of Lent asking ourselves what needs to change in our lives if we are to live the gospel values that Jesus taught us. Our journey through these forty days should be a movement ever closer to Christ and to the way of life he has exemplified for us.

Scrutinies and Penance

The elect deal with sin through the Scrutinies and through the waters of the font; the already baptized deal with sin through the Sacrament of Penance. The same kind of reflection that enables all members of the community to share in the Scrutinies can lead the baptized to celebrate this Sacrament of Reconciliation to renew their baptismal commitment.

Lent is the primary time for celebrating the Sacrament of Penance, because Lent is the season for baptismal preparation and baptismal renewal. Early Christian teachers called this sacrament "second Baptism," because it is intended to enable us to start again to live the baptismal life in its fullness. Those who experience the loving mercy of God in the Sacrament of Reconciliation should find themselves standing alongside the newly baptized at Easter filled with great joy at the new life God has given all of us.

Prayer, fasting and almsgiving

The three traditional pillars of Lenten observance are prayer, fasting and almsgiving. The key to renewed appropriation
of these practices is to see their link to baptismal renewal.

Prayer: More time given to prayer during Lent should draw us closer to the Lord. We might pray especially for the grace to live out our baptismal promises more fully. We might pray for the elect who will be baptized at Easter and support their conversion journey by our prayer. We might pray for all those who will celebrate the sacrament of reconciliation with us during Lent that they will be truly renewed in their baptismal commitment.

Fasting: Fasting is one of the most ancient practices linked to Lent. In fact, the paschal fast predates Lent as we know it. The early Church fasted intensely for two days before the celebration of the Easter Vigil. This fast was later extended and became a 40-day period of fasting leading up to Easter. Vatican II called us to renew the observance of the ancient paschal fast: "...let the paschal fast be kept sacred. Let it be celebrated everywhere on Good Friday and, where possible, prolonged throughout Holy Saturday, so that the joys of the Sunday of the Resurrection may be attained with uplifted and clear mind" (Liturgy, # 110).

Fasting is more than a means of developing self-control. It is often an aid to prayer, as the pangs of hunger remind us of our hunger for God. The first reading on the Friday after Ash Wednesday points out another important dimension
of fasting. The prophet Isaiah insists that fasting without changing our behavior is not pleasing to God. "This, rather, is the fasting that I wish: releasing those bound unjustly, untying the thongs of the yoke; setting free the oppressed, breaking every yoke; sharing your bread with the hungry, sheltering the oppressed and the homeless; clothing the naked when you see them, and not turning your back on your own" (Is 58:6-7).

Fasting should be linked to our concern for those who are forced to fast by their poverty, those who suffer from the
injustices of our economic and political structures, those who
are in need for any reason. Thus fasting, too, is linked to living out our baptismal promises. By our Baptism, we are charged
with the responsibility of showing Christ's love to the world, especially to those in need. Fasting can help us realize the suffering that so many people in our world experience every day, and it should lead us to greater efforts to alleviate that suffering.

Abstaining from meat traditionally also linked us to the poor, who could seldom afford meat for their meals. It can do the same today if we remember the purpose of abstinence and embrace it as a spiritual link to those whose diets are sparse and simple. That should be the goal we set for ourselves—a sparse and simple meal. Avoiding meat while eating lobster misses the whole point!

Almsgiving: It should be obvious at this point that almsgiving, the third traditional pillar, is linked to our baptismal commitment in the same way. It is a sign of our care for those in need and an expression of our gratitude for all that God has given to us. Works of charity and the promotion of justice are integral elements of the Christian way of life we began when we were baptized.

Stations of the Cross

While this devotion certainly has a place in Lent, the overemphasis given to it in the past tended to distort the meaning of the season. Because the stations were prayed publicly throughout the whole season, the impression was given that Lent was primarily about commemorating the passion and death of Christ.

Vatican II strongly endorsed the use of devotions as part of Catholic spirituality, but it also called for their renewal, to harmonize them with the sacred liturgy (see Liturgy #13).

The liturgy of Lent focuses on the passion and death of the Lord only near the end of the season, especially with the proclamation of the Passion on Palm (Passion) Sunday and again on Good Friday. The weekday readings between the Fifth Sunday of Lent and Palm Sunday also point toward the coming Passion, so that might also be an appropriate time to pray the Stations. The earlier weeks of Lent, however, focus much more on Baptism and covenant than on the Passion.

When we do pray the Stations of the Cross, we can also connect them with the baptismal character of Lent if we place the stations themselves in the context of the whole paschal mystery. In Baptism we are plunged into the mystery of Christ's death and resurrection, and our baptismal commitment includes a willingness to give our life for others as Jesus did. Recalling his passion and death can remind us that we, too, may be called to suffer in order to be faithful to the call of God.

One limitation with the traditional form of the Stations is the absence of the second half of the paschal mystery. The liturgy never focuses on the death of Christ without recalling his resurrection. Some forms of the Stations of the Cross include a 15th station to recall the resurrection as an integral part of the paschal mystery.

Some contemporary forms of the Stations also make clear the link between the sufferings of Christ in the first century and the sufferings of Christ's body in the world today. Such an approach can help us to recognize and admit the ways that we have failed to live up to our baptismal mission to spread the gospel and manifest the love of Christ to those in need.

Blessed palms

As we near the end of Lent, we celebrate Passion (Palm) Sunday. At the beginning of the liturgy, we receive palms in memory of Christ's triumphal entry into Jerusalem. As a symbol of triumph, the palms point us toward Christ's resurrection and might remind us of the saints in heaven "wearing white robes and holding palm branches in their hands" (Rev 7:9). The white robes remind us of baptismal garments, and the palms suggest their triumph over sin and death through the waters of Baptism.

More Easter / Lent

'So it is written that the Christ would suffer and on the third day rise from the dead' - Luke 24:46

Ash Wednesday

Ash Wednesday marks the beginning of the Season of Lent. It is a season of penance, reflection, and fasting which prepares us for Christ's Resurrection on Easter Sunday, through which we attain redemption. continue reading

Palm Sunday

Palm Sunday, the Sunday before Easter, commemorates Jesus' triumphal entry into Jerusalem, an event mentioned in all four canonical Gospels. (Mark 11:1.11, Matthew 21:1.11, Luke 19:28.44, and John 12:12.19) ... continue reading

Holy Week

On Palm Sunday, we celebrate the first joy of the season, as we celebrate Our Lord's triumphant entrance into Jerusalem where he was welcomed by crowds worshiping him and laying down palm leaves before him. It also marks the beginning of Holy Week... continue reading

Holy Thursday

HOLY THURSDAY is the most complex and profound of all religious observances. It celebrates his last supper with the disciples, a celebration of Passover ... continue reading

Good Friday

On Good Friday, each member of the Church tries to understand at what cost Christ has won our redemption. In the solemn ceremonies of Holy Week we unite ourselves to our Savior, and we contemplate our own death to sin in the Death of our Lord ... continue reading

Easter Sunday

Easter is the principal feast of the ecclesiastical year. Leo I (Sermo xlvii in Exodum) calls it the greatest feast (festum festorum), and says that Christmas is celebrated only in preparation for Easter. It is the centre of the greater part of the ecclesiastical year ... continue reading

Fasting and Abstinence

For most people the easiest practice to consistently fulfill will be the traditional one, to abstain from meat on all Fridays of the year. During Lent abstinence from meat on Fridays is obligatory in the United States as elsewhere. Christ Himself said that His disciples would fast once He had departed (Lk. 5:35). continue reading

FAQs About Lent

Everything answered from when does lent end, ashes, giving something up, stations of the cross and blessed palms. The key to understanding the meaning of Lent is simple: Baptism... continue reading

Stations of the Cross

Stations of the Cross refers to the depiction of the final hours (or Passion) of Jesus, and the devotion commemorating the Passion. First Station: Jesus is condemned to death... pray the stations now

What did you give up for Lent?

Tell Us

From the humorous to the bizarre, people have had interesting Lenten experiences. Tell us about what you are going to give up for this Lenten Year.
What others gave up »

Lent / Easter News

1st Sorrowful Mystery: The Agony in the Garden
Jennifer Hartline - Catholic Online, 2/20/2015
"Father, if you are willing, take this cup from me; yet not my will, but yours be done." An angel from heaven appeared to him and strengthened him. And being in anguish, he prayed more earnestly, and ...Continue Reading
The Lenten Invitation: Making Choices and Changing Ourselves
Deacon Keith Fournier - Catholic Online, 2/20/2015
With His outstretched arms on the Cross, Jesus freely chose love and bridged the gap between heaven and earth. In His triumph over death he defeated the last enemy and began the new creation. We ...Continue Reading
Great tips for fasting during Lent from Dr. Denton
Dr. Denton D Weiss, MD - Catholic Online, 2/19/2015
When we fast, we live largely on fluids. In doing so we are given the cleansing, perfect touch of God. In our separation from the consumable bounties of this world we are given insights into living ...Continue Reading
Ash Wednesday Homily of Pope Francis
Catholic Online - Catholic Online, 2/18/2015
To return to the Lord with all one's heart, means taking the path of a conversion that is neither superficial nor transient, but is a spiritual journey that reaches the deepest place of our self. ...Continue Reading

View More Easter News

Good Friday

On Good Friday, the entire Church fixes her gaze on the Cross at Calvary. Each member of the Church tries to understand at what cost Christ has won our redemption.

The Cross

In the symbol of the Cross we can see the magnitude of the human tragedy, the ravages of original sin, and the infinite love of God. Learn More

Ash Wednesday

Ash Wednesday marks the beginning of the Season of Lent. It is a season of penance, reflection, and fasting which prepares us for Christ's Resurrection on Easter Sunday, through which we attain redemption.

The Ashes

The ashes are made from the blessed palms used in the Palm Sunday celebration of the previous year. The ashes are christened with Holy Water and are scented by exposure to incense. Learn More

Stations of the Cross

Stations of the Cross refers to the depiction of the final hours (or Passion) of Jesus, and the devotion commemorating the Passion.

Opening Prayer

ACT OF CONTRITION. O my God, my Redeemer, behold me here at Thy feet. From the bottom of my heart... Pray the Stations

Fasting & Abstinence

'Christ Himself said that His disciples would fast once He had departed' Lk. 5:35

Abstinence. The law of abstinence requires a Catholic 14 years of age until death to abstain from eating meat on Fridays in honor of the Passion of Jesus on Good Friday. Salt and freshwater species of fish, amphibians, reptiles and shellfish are permitted.

Fasting. The law of fasting requires a Catholic from the 18th Birthday (Canon 97) to the 59th Birthday (i.e. the beginning of the 60th year, a year which will be completed on the 60th birthday) to reduce the amount of food eaten from normal. The Church defines this as one meal a day, and two smaller meals which if added together would not exceed the main meal.
Learn More »

F.A.Q. ABOUT LENT

· When does Lent end?

· Ashes

· Giving something up

· Scrutinies: Examining our lives

· Scrutinies and Penance

· Prayer, fasting and almsgiving

· Stations of the Cross

· Blessed palms

http://www.catholic.org/clife/lent/faq.php

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Ash Wednesday 2015: How Christians Mark The First Day Of Lent

By Zoe Mintz @ZoeMintz z.mintz@ibtimes.com on February 18 2015 8:51 AM EST

A cross of ashes is marked on worshippers' foreheads on Ash Wednesday. Wikimedia Commons

Ash Wednesday marks the first day of the 40-day Lenten fast for Western Christians. The Christian holy day, this year falling on Feb. 18, is observed by prayer, repentance and fasting ahead of Easter.

The day follows Fat Tuesday, also known as Mardi Gras, where revelers partake in their last bout of merrymaking before Lent begins. While many see the observance as a Catholic one, most liturgical churches include Lent in their practices. This includes Lutheran, Methodist, Presbyterian and Anglican denominations.

For those unfamiliar with Ash Wednesday, below are three answers to common questions surrounding the holy day.

How Is Ash Wednesday Observed?

During Ash Wednesday services, clergy use ashes burned at last year’s Palm Sunday to mark a cross on member’s foreheads as they bow. While services may take place in the morning and evening, churches have found innovative ways for members partake in the ritual. Some organizations dispense ashes on street corners, subway platforms, outside coffee shops and grocery stories. This year a number of churches are offering drive-through services where members can receive the ashes on their forehead from their car.

For devout Catholics between the ages of 18 to 59, Ash Wednesday and Good Friday are mandatory fasting days. Abstinence -- in this case, refraining from meat products -- must be practiced from age 14 and up. Fasting denotes eating one full meal and two small meals each day. Lent is also a time to refrain from any bad habits that can interfere with one’s relationship with God. This can range from giving up chocolate to performing community outreach.

What Do The Ashes Mean?

Ash Wednesday and the 40-day Lenten fast are not mentioned in the Bible. Rather, Lent formally appeared in A.D. 325 after the Council of Nicaea.

Ash Wednesday comes from the Latin name "dies cinerum" (day of ashes). The earliest record of the practice comes from copies of the Gregorian Sacramentary around the eighth century when the faithful would approach the altar and a priest would mark their heads with the sign of the cross in ashes.

Even before their liturgical use, ashes were seen as a sign of repentance. The Hebrew Bible makes several references to how ashes symbolized mourning, mortality and penance. Biblical figures including Jonah, Job and Daniel usesd sackcloths and ashes to repent. Until the Middle Ages, ashes adopted a symbolic meaning. Around the eighth century, the church began sprinkling ashes on those who were about to die, referencing the biblical passage in Genesis 3:19: “For dust you are and to dust you shall return.”

Over time, ashes were used to mark the beginning of Lent. An early reference to sign one’s forehead with the shape of the cross was written in the year A.D. 1000 by an Anglo-Saxon abbot named Ælfric of Eynsham who remarked, “We read in the books both in the Old Law and in the New that the men who repented of their sins bestrewed themselves with ashes and clothed their bodies with sackcloth. Now let us do this little at the beginning of our Lent that we strew ashes upon our heads to signify that we ought to repent of our sins during the Lenten fast."

What Is Clean Monday?

Ash Wednesday is a Western Christian tradition. For those belonging to Eastern Orthodox churches, Lent starts on a Monday.

Eastern Catholics (e.g., Coptic Christians, etc.) start the Lenten fast on the Monday preceding Ash Wednesday. Eastern Orthodox churches begin Lent later, on the Monday after Ash Wednesday. Known as Clean Monday, the date falls seven weeks before Easter. This year Clean Monday falls on Feb. 23.

Unlike Western traditions that exclude Sundays in their 40-day counts, Orthodox traditions include them as fasting days. The idea of starting the fast on Monday, the first day of the week, acts as a reminder to start the Lenten season with the intention of spiritually purifying oneself. Orthodox Christians follow stricter fasting rules during this time where they refrain from meat, eggs and dairy products.

http://www.ibtimes.com/ash-wednesday-2015-how-christians-mark-first-day-lent-1819280

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IN EUROPE LIKE MUCH OF CANADA... All Religions stick very closely 2 gether.... like - u want 2 kill Jews??? well u have 2 kill us Muslims first!!... well u have 2 kill Christians First... well u have 2 kill us citizens first!!

Norwegian Muslims to form 'ring of peace' around Oslo synagogue in solidarity with Jews

Norwegian Muslims to embrace, guard Jews at Oslo synagogue

Deutsche Welle‎ - 4 hours ago

Muslims and ethnic Norwegians alike are set to stand guard in symbolic ... in response to a recent wave of anti-Semitism in western Europe. ... This is the sole message behind the Fredens Ring, or peace ring, which is ... AND... CANADA.... God bless our troops and mounties murdered on Canadian soil.... we know on this day... that everyday Canadians in the millions and millions will protect their sisters and brothers and families of our Canada of all religion and/or none because it's decent and so are we...
Canadians who live in Cold Lake- and our troops helped clean up the mess some crappy fools made on our beautiful Mosque…. Canadians came out and cleaned it up… and sang O Canada…. and Canada troops were the first 2 offer help….Some of our Canadian troops are on their way 2 fight the evil – THEY ARE NOT ISLAM- thugs hiding under Islam whilst raping and torturing and murdering thousands of innocent Muslim girls, women and youth…. this is NOT Islam… and just so u all know… our Canada…. is young, beautiful, fresh, well educated…. and incredible supporters of our Canadian troops…. in Canada they are as important as our flag and our nation- they are why we are free… and why we fight in ugly, cruel and evil parts of the world that are stealing the soul of Islam and beautiful Muslim girls, women and kids…. imho
COLD LAKE ALBERTA- CANADIANS RISE UP 4 THEIR MUSLIM SISTERS AND BROTHERS WHILST HUGGING OUR TROOPS ON THE WAY 2 BATTLE THE EVIL MONSTERS OF ISIS WHO RAPE, TORTURE AND MURDER INNOCENCE IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND AFRICAS…
VIDEO ON GLOBAL CANADA NEWS SITE

CANADA: – Cold Lake residents help remove graffiti from mosque
October 24, 2014 1:12 pm
By Slav Kornik and Emily Mertz Global News
http://globalnews.ca/news/1633564/cold-lake-mosque-vandalized/?utm_source=Article
Embedded image permalink

and BLOGGED/BLOGGED- WORDPRESS nova0000scotia WORDPRESS

CANADA- Residents of Cold Lake step up and clean up defacing on beautiful mosque– it’s Canada – our religions matter -they define us… first 2 donate support and help r Canadian troops – ISIS BOKO ALLSAME- KIDNAPPING RAPEING LITTLE GIRLS AND BOYS THEN TORTURE MURDER-Gloria and Marlo received USA Awards -thrilled https://nova0000scotia.wordpress.com/2014/10/25/canada-residents-of-cold-lake-step-up-and-clean-up-defacing-on-beautiful-mosque-its-canada-our-religions-matter-they-define-us-first-2-donate-support-and-help-canadian-troops-isis-boko-a/

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AMAZING GRACE- INUIT

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A VALUABLE LESSON- some human trash burned down a mosque... and the most brilliant response by the Qube Islamic Institute- love ur brothers and sisters proven...

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Lent Quotes 2015: 10 Inspirational Pope Francis Sayings For The Lenten Season

By Maria Vultaggio @mariamzzarella m.vultaggio@ibtimes.com on February 17 2015 9:25 PM

Quotes by Pope Francis to read as Lent starts on Ash Wednesday. Reuters

Ash Wednesday, also known as the “Day of Ashes,” is the first day of the Lenten season. For 40 days and 40 nights, Christians traditionally sacrifice something in the days leading to Easter, the holiest day in Christianity. To celebrate the start of penance, 10 quotes from Pope Francis have been provided, courtesy of Brainy Quote.

1. "Lent comes providentially to reawaken us, to shake us from our lethargy."

2. "Fasting makes sense if it really chips away at our security and, as a consequence, benefits someone else, if it helps us cultivate the style of the good Samaritan, who bent down to his brother in need and took care of him."

3. "Although the life of a person is in a land full of thorns and weeds, there is always a space in which the good seed can grow. You have to trust God.”

4. “Each of us has a vision of good and of evil. We have to encourage people to move towards what they think is good... Everyone has his own idea of good and evil and must choose to follow the good and fight evil as he conceives them. That would be enough to make the world a better place.”

5. “I believe in God - not in a Catholic God; there is no Catholic God. There is God, and I believe in Jesus Christ, his incarnation. Jesus is my teacher and my pastor, but God, the Father, Abba, is the light and the Creator. This is my Being.”

6. “A little bit of mercy makes the world less cold and more just.”

7. “Wretched are those who are vindictive and spiteful.”

8. “The confessional is not a torture chamber, but the place in which the Lord's mercy motivates us to do better.”

9. “We must always walk in the presence of the Lord, in the light of the Lord, always trying to live in an irreprehensible way.”

10. “We all have the duty to do good.”

Follow me on Twitter @mariamzzarella

http://www.ibtimes.com/lent-quotes-2015-10-inspirational-pope-francis-sayings-lenten-season-1819848

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Easter, Lent, the Passion

Easter, Lent, the Passion. The term 'Easter music' is used to describe all music specific to the season beginning with Ash Wednesday, through Holy Week and ending with the Ascension.

Easter, Lent, the Passion. The term 'Easter music' is used to describe all music specific to the season beginning with Ash Wednesday, through Holy Week and ending with the Ascension. Bach's St Matthew Passion has become a staple of the season in Canada, owing mainly to the performances given for over 30 years (1923-57, many of them broadcast) by Sir Ernest MacMillan, first at Timothy Eaton Memorial Church, then with the TCM (RCMT) chorus, and after 1942 with the Toronto Mendelssohn Choir. The other Bach passions, Beethoven's Mount of Olives, Brahms' German Requiem, the Mozart and Fauré requiems, Spohr's Calvary, and Gounod's La Rédemptionalso have been sung during the Easter season in public concert and in Canadian churches, though during at least the first half of the 20th century works of somewhat less distinction - John Stainer's The Crucifixion, Alfred Gaul's The Holy City, Théodore Dubois's Les Sept Paroles du Christ, and John Henry Maunder's From Olivet to Calvary - were encountered more frequently. The Dubois has remained the single most popular Easter-season work in Quebec churches, Good Friday performances often enlisting the services of such leading soloists as Raoul Jobin or Richard Verreau. Many less famous works also have been performed, eg, Messiah Victorious, a cantata by William G. Hammond, at Trinity Methodist Church in Toronto, on Easter in 1913, and Crux by Fernand de La Tombelle and Les Mystères douloureux by Charles Planchet, performed in Montreal in 1922 and 1925 respectively.

Probably the first extended seasonal offering of the kind in Canada was the plainsong passion sung at Quebec City on Good Friday 1646. A participant wrote: 'Then the service took place at which the passion was sung by three voices, - to wit, by Monsieur de St. Sauveur [Jean Le Sueur], Gospeller; by Monsieur the prior [René Chartier], who represented the synagogue; and by me' (Jérôme Lalemant, Jesuit Relations, vol 28, p. 177).

Easter-season works of major proportions composed by Canadians include Frédéric Pelletier's Stabat mater (performed 1925) and his oratorio La Rédemption (ca 1930), Roberta Geddes-Harvey's oratorioSalvator (1907, performed in Guelph, Toronto, and Kingston), Joseph-Julien Perrault's Stabat mater and Passion (both composed between 1849 and 1866), Albert Ham's cantata The Solitudes of the Passion(1917), J. Antonio Thompson's Les Sept Paroles du Christ (1933) andMesse de Pâques (1941), and Arthur Poynter's church opera The Triumph of Our Lord (1950). More recent are settings of The Passion According to St Luke by James McRae and Keith Bissell and of theStabat mater by Welford Russell and Bernard Naylor. Naylor also composed an Easter cantata, The Resurrection According to St Matthew (1965). Other significant works are Godfrey Ridout's The Ascension (1962, the second of his Cantiones mysticae), the Easter portions of Violet Archer's Cantata sacra (1966), Paul Pedersen'sCantata and Narrative for Good Friday (1972), Ann Lauber's oratorioJesus Christus (1984) includes sections on the Passion and the Resurrection (see Oratorio composition), as does Gerhard Wuensch'sFour Episodes from St John (1987).

Among Canadian composers of anthems, carols, and motets for the Easter season are W.H. Anderson, Keith Bissell, Barrie Cabena, JeanCoulthard, George (composer) Fox, James Gayfer, Graham George, Barry Gosse, Kenneth Meek, Bernard Naylor (notably his Victimae Paschali, his Three Latin Motets, and some of his Nine English Motets),Alfred Whitehead (who probably has composed a greater number of short Easter pieces of good quality than any of his colleagues, his output being exemplified by his setting of Most Glorious Lord of Lyfe), and Healey Willan (Introit and Gradual for Dedication in Eastertide, B601, and numerous others). Willan also wrote Responsories for the Offices of Tenebrae (1956), Propers for Lent, and Antiphon for Lent.

There are several Easter-seasonal works for organ, eg, Willan's chorale preludes on Gelobt sei Gott and Vexilla regis (1950) and on the Easter Hymn and O filii et filiae (ca 1956), Matton's Suite de Pâques (1950),Morel's suite Alleluia (1964-8), Bales' Fanfare for Easter Day (organ and brass, 1964), Lynnwood Farnam's Toccata on 'O filii et filiae,' Bernard Piché's Fugue sur l'Ite missa est alliluiatique, Benoît Poirier'sCloches de Pâques, and Marius Cayouette's Prélude pour les Matines de Pâques.

· EASTER

· MUSIC

· HOLIDAY

· HOLIDAYS

· RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS

· LENT

http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/easter-lent-the-passion-emc/

Rose Latulippe

Rose Latulippe is one of many girls in French Canadian FOLKLORE who were supposed to have danced with the devil, some to survive, others to be carried off, never to be seen again.

Latulippe, Rose

Rose Latulippe is one of many girls in French Canadian FOLKLOREwho were supposed to have danced with the devil, some to survive, others to be carried off, never to be seen again. Rose Latulippe neglected her fiancé Gabriel in favour of a handsome stranger who had claws inside his velvet gloves and whose horse breathed fire. Just as the devil tried to put his own necklace around her neck to bind her to him, the local parish priest (curé) rushed in, placed his stole around her shoulders and put the devil to flight, restoring Rose to her fiancé. Such stories were prevalent as sanctions against dancing, particularly during Lent or on Sundays. The legend inspired the first Canadian full length ballet, Rose Latulippe, composed by Harry FREEDMAN and choreographed by Brian MACDONALD for the ROYAL WINNIPEG BALLET in 1966.

http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/rose-latulippe/

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THE PRAYER- Celine Dion and Josh Groban

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Worshiping With Children- Lent

Observing Lent and Celebrating Easter

Most congregations work hard to include children in Advent and Christmas celebrations. Lent and Easter are another story. Often the children are not expected at and not even wanted at these worship services. The hope is that they will hear the stories in church school or at home and join the congregation celebrating the stories when they are older and understand them more fully. I think that is a mistake. The Lent-Easter stories are the key stories of our faith and the worship services of Lent, Holy Week and Easter are our high Holy Days. Children need to be part of them with the entire congregation.

I feel so strongly about this that I have written a book, Sharing the Easter Faith With Children. It includes

- information about what children understand about these stories at each age,

-commentary on the Holy Week and Easter texts from a child’s point of view,

-detailed plans for Ash Wednesday, Palm Sunday, Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, and Easter services at which children are expected to be part of the congregation,

-study session plans for parents, teachers, and worship planners, and

- an annotated bibliography of children’s literature related to Lent and Easter

The book offers LOTS more than I can put in a blog. So, I encourage you to invest in it. Buy it now and you will have lots of ideas for all the Lenten and Easter services immediately. It is available at many of the usual on-line book sellers and in many religious bookstores.

But, until you get the book J here are a few ideas about including children in the congregation’s observation of Lent and celebration of Easter.

Children can hear the passion and resurrection stories. From an early age they can be told that people who were angry with Jesus killed him on a cross, but that God would not let Jesus stay dead and made him alive again on Easter. Over the years they add the details. The younger the children the more they follow the emotions of the story rather than the facts. For that reason it is important to always tell the whole story. Even on Good Friday, mention the surprise that we know is waiting.

Children also find different kinds of good news in the passion and resurrection stories than adults find in them. Older preschoolers celebrate God as most powerful super power in the universe and are glad to be allied with God. Younger elementary schoolers, who are moving out into the world on their own more and more, find comfort in the God who knows us and promises to be with us always even after we die. Older elementary schoolers identify most strongly with Peter as he lived through Holy Week. Jesus’ forgiveness of the best friend who betrayed him proves to them that God will forgive anything. Adults find comfort in the promise of new life. All these different versions of “the best news” enrich each other when they are woven into the congregation’s worship.

Exploring the stories in the sanctuary in worship gives them more power for children. For example, a palm parade with other children in a classroom may be a kid thing, but a triumphant parade in the sanctuary with people of all ages communicates that this is indeed an important parade. Hearing the story of the Last Supper is one thing, but celebrating the Last Supper on the “anniversary” of very night that Jesus invented it with the whole church brings the story to life. Same with hearing the crucifixion story on Good Friday or getting up before sunrise to hear the story outside on Easter Sunday morning.

So, as you begin planning for the season as a whole, consider the following….

Make a big deal about changing the colors in the sanctuary. Do it together on either Ash Wednesday or the first Sunday of Lent. This can be fairly formal with people carrying out the white or green cloths and banners and others processing in with the purple ones. Or, it can be more informal with worship leaders inviting worshipers to help change the paraments and explaining in the process the meaning of Lent and the purple. Describe the changes in the sanctuary that will come on Good Friday and again on Easter.

In an Anglican church the children drew
alleluia posters which were put in this chest
and set under the altar until Easter.

Hide the ALLELUIA! Many congregations ban the use of the word “Alleluia!” in the congregation’s worship during Lent. To highlight this, create (or get young or older artists to create) a beautiful poster of the word, show the poster at the beginning of the service on the first Sunday of Lent, then put it in a box and tuck it somewhere in the sanctuary. Leave it there until Easter where young children can check on it, if they wish. On Easter morning, bring it out, shout it, sing it and enjoy it.

Encourage a Lenten worship discipline for children and their families. Because Lent is basically spring training for disciples, it is an opportunity to encourage children to grow as worshipers.

If you tend to use historic prayers of confession and assurances of pardon or repeated sung responses during Lent, introduce and explain them to the children during worship and encourage them to join in on praying and singing them. (Many adults will listen appreciatively.)

Encourage households to pray together at home each day during Lent. This can be as simple as challenging them to pray before one meal each day or at bedtime each day or to pray the Lord’s Prayer together each day (perhaps learning it in the process). Or, it can involve providing printed devotionals for households of different ages. Young children learn the practice of daily prayer by praying with their parents. Older children often begin to pray on their own when provided a printed guide to be followed for a set period. If you do this, don’t simply set the discipline at the beginning of Lent. Mention it throughout Lent encouraging people to keep with it or get back to it if they have let it slip. Congratulate them at the end of Lent and give specific suggestions for keeping the discipline going.

As you plan services that include children, be sure to invite them and their parents repeatedly. One parenthetical “children are welcome” will not do the job. You will have to say that children are not only welcome, but are encouraged to attend. Be sure to set times of weekday services with children and families in mind, i.e. before bedtime on a school night. Explain to the whole congregation why it is important that children participate in these services.

If reading this is recalling ways congregations you know have included children in the Lenten and Easter worship, share it in the comments section. We all need all the ideas we can gather on this one!

http://worshipingwithchildren.blogspot.ca/2011/01/observing-lent-and-celebrating-easter.html

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CANADA

History Since Confederation

The story of Canada since 1867 is, in many ways, a successful one.

The story of Canada since 1867 is, in many ways, a successful one: For two-and-a-half centuries, people of different languages, cultures and backgrounds, thrown together in the vast, northern reaches of a continent, built a free society where regional communities could grow and prosper, linked by the common thread of an emerging national identity. There were false steps along the way, including the struggles of Aboriginal people for survival, and the ever-present tensions over federal unity. But for the most part, Canada became an example to the world of a modern, workable nation state. Its development can be broken into the following periods:

(1867-1913) Immigration and Industrialization

(1914-1918) War, Victory and Autonomy

(1919-1938) Labour Unrest and the Great Depression

(1939-1945) Second World War

(1945-1971) Cold War and the Québec Agenda

(1972-1980) The Inflation Curse and Regional Divides

(1981-1992) The Constitution Decade

(1993-2005) Liberal Hegemony — and Collapse

(2006-2014) Rise of the West

(1867-1913) Immigration and Industrialization

In 1867, the new state—beginning with Nova Scotia, New Brunswick,Québec and Ontario—expanded extraordinarily in less than a decade, stretching from sea to sea. Rupert's Land, from northwestern Québec to the Rockies and north to the Arctic, was purchased from theHudson's Bay Company in 1869-70. From it were carved Manitobaand the Northwest Territories in 1870. A year later, British Columbiaentered Confederation on the promise of a transcontinental railway.Prince Edward Island was added in 1873. Alberta and Saskatchewanwon provincial status in 1905, after mass immigration at the turn of the century began to fill the vast Prairie West (see Territorial Evolution).

Sir John A. Macdonald's Dream

Under the leadership of the first federal prime minister, Sir John A. Macdonald, and his chief Québec colleague, Sir George-Étienne Cartier, the Conservative Party — almost permanently in office until 1896 — committed itself to the expansionist National Policy. It showered the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) with cash and land grants, achieving its completion in 1885. The government erected a high, protective customs-tariff wall to shield developing Canadian industrialism from foreign, especially American, competition. The other objective, mass settlement of the west, largely eluded them, but success came to their Liberal successors after 1896. Throughout this period there were detractors who resented the CPR's monopoly or felt — as did many in the West and on the East Coast — that the high tariff principally benefited central Canada. Yet the tariff had support in some parts of the Maritimes.

Rise of Radical Nationalism

The earliest post-Confederation years saw the flowering of two significant movements of intense nationalism. In English Canada the very majesty of the great land, the ambitions and idealism of the educated young and an understanding that absorption by the United States threatened a too-timid Canada, all spurred the growth of theCanada First movement in literature and politics — promoting an Anglo-Protestant race and culture in Canada, and fierce independence from the U.S.. The Canada Firsters' nationalist-imperialist vision of grandeur for their country did not admit the distinctiveness of the French, Roman Catholic culture that was a part of the nation's makeup.

The group's counterparts in Québec, the ultramontanes, believed in papal supremacy, in the Roman Catholic Church and in the clerical domination of society. Their movement had its roots in the European counter-revolution of the mid-19th century. It found fertile soil in a French Canada resentful at re-conquest by the British after the abortive Rebellions of 1837, and distrustful of North American secular democracy. The coming of responsible government in Nova Scotiaand in the Province of Canada by 1850, and of federalism in the new Confederation, encouraged these clericalist zealots to try to "purify" Québec politics and society on conservative Catholic lines. The bulwark of Catholicism and of Canadien distinctiveness was to be the French language. Confederation was a necessary evil, the least objectionable non-Catholic association for their cultural nation.Separatism was dismissed as unthinkable and impractical, in the face of the threats posed by American secularism and materialism. But a pan-Canadian national vision was no part of their view of the future.

These two extreme, antithetical views of Canada could co-exist so long as the English-speaking and French-speaking populations remained separate, and little social or economic interchange was required. But as the peopling of border and frontier areas in Ontario and the West continued, and as the industrialization of Québec accelerated, conflicts multiplied. The harsh ultramontane attacks on liberal Catholicism and freedom of thought in Québec alarmed Protestant opinion in English Canada, while the lack of toleration of Catholic minority school rights and of the French language outside Québec infuriated the Québecois (see Manitoba Schools Question). Increasing, social and economic domination of Québec by the Anglophone Canadian business class exacerbated the feeling.

Prosperity and Growth

Economic growth was slow at first and varied widely from region to region. Industrial development steadily benefited southern Ontario, the upper St Lawrence River Valley and parts of the Maritimes. But rural Ontario west of Toronto and most of backcountry Québec steadily lost population as modern farming techniques, soil depletion and steep increases in American agricultural tariffs permitted fewer farmers to make their living on the land. Emigration from the Maritimes was prompted by a decline of the traditional forestry and shipbuilding industries. The Maritime economy was also hurt by the withering of bilateral trading links with the New England states, due in part to Ottawa's protectionist National Policy. Nationwide, from the 1870s through the 1890s, 1.5 million Canadians left the country, mostly for the U.S. (see Population).

Fortunately, prosperous times came at last, with the rising tide ofimmigration—just over 50,000 immigrants arrived in 1901, jumping to eight times that figure 12 years later. A country of 4.8 million in 1891 swelled to 7.2 million in 1911. The prairie "wheat boom" was a major component of the national success. Wheat production shot up from 8 million bushels in 1896 to 231 million bushels in 1911. Prairie population rose as dramatically, necessitating the creation of the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan in 1905 and the completion of two new cross-Canada railways — the Grand Trunk Pacific and theCanadian Northern. Western cities, especially Winnipeg andVancouver, experienced breakaway expansion as trading and shipping centres. Nearly 30 per cent of the new immigration went to Ontario, with Toronto taking the lion's share for its factories, stockyards, stores and construction gangs. Both Toronto andMontréal more than doubled their population in the 20 years before 1914.

Social Change, Government Expansion

As Canada increasingly became an urban and industrial society, the self-help and family-related social-assistance practices of earlier times were outmoded. The vigorous Social Gospel movement among Protestants and the multiplication of social-assistance activities by Roman Catholic orders and agencies constituted impressive responses, however inadequate. Governments, especially at the provincial level, expanded their roles in education, labour and welfare. An increasingly significant presence in social reform work was that of women, who also began to exert pressure for the vote.

Through immigration, Canada was becoming a multicultural society, at least in the West and in the major, growing industrial cities. Roughly one-third of the immigrants came from non-English-speaking Europe.Ukrainians, Russian Jews, Poles, Germans, Italians, Dutch and Scandinavians were the principal groups. In BC there were small but increasing populations of Chinese, Japanese and East Indians. There were growing signs of unease among both English and French Canadians about the presence of so many "strangers," but the old social makeup of Canada had been altered forever.

Rebellion in the West

Meanwhile, there was a reduction in the extent of territories controlled by First Nations, and in their degree of self-determination. In the Arctic, the Inuit remained largely undisturbed, but most western First Nations and Métis people lost their way of life as white settlement, farming and railroads encroached on much of their hunting lands. In 1869-70 in the Red River region, and in 1885 at Batoche in Saskatchewan, there were unsuccessful armed Métis rebellions led by Louis Riel (see Red River Rebellion; North-West Rebellion). During the second uprising some Aboriginal groups were directly involved. Otherwise the settlement of the West was generally peaceful — land was obtained in exchange for treaty and reservation rights for First Nations, and through land grants to the Métis. Order was kept by the new, North-West Mounted Police.

Sir Wilfrid Laurier

In 1896 the prime ministership of Canada passed to the Québecois Liberal Roman Catholic Sir Wilfrid Laurier. He presided over the greatest prosperity Canadians had yet seen, but his 15 years of power were bedeviled and then ended by difficult problems in Canada's relationships with Britain and the U.S.. During Laurier's tenure, Britain's interest in a united and powerful empire intensified. Many English Canadians were swept up in Imperial emotion and Canadian nationalist ambition, and called for an enlarged imperial role for Canada. They forced the Laurier government to send troops to aid Britain in the South African War, 1899-1902, and to begin a Canadian navy in 1910. In the same spirit came a massive Canadian contribution of men and money to the British cause in the cataclysm of the FirstWorld War.

By then the Laurier administration had been defeated, in part because too many English Canadian imperialists thought it was "not British enough," and because the growing nationaliste movement in Québec, led by Henri Bourassa, was sure that it was "too British," and would involve young Québec boys in foreign wars of no particular concern to Canada. But the chief cause of Laurier's defeat in the general election of 1911 was his proposed reciprocity or free trade agreement with the U.S., which would have led to the reciprocal removal or lowering of duties on the so-called "natural" products of farms, forests and fisheries.

The captains of Canadian finance, manufacturing and transport excited the strong Canadian suspicions of American economic intentions and, with their support, the Conservative Opposition underRobert Borden convinced the electorate that Canada's separate national economy and imperial trading possibilities were about to be thrown away for economic, and possibly political, absorption by the U.S..

(1914-1918) War, Victory and Autonomy

Although economic fears helped propel Borden into power, his government was soon preoccupied not with trade or the economy, but overseas war. Europe's great powers had embarked on a conflict like the world had never seen, and as Britain was drawn into the First World War, so automatically was Canada. There was extraordinary voluntary participation on land, at sea and in the air by Canadians (seeWartime Home Front). But in 1917 the country was split severely over the question of conscription, or compulsory military service. The question arose as a result of a severe shortage of Allied manpower on the Western Front in Europe. The subsequent election of a pro-conscription Union government of English Canadian Liberals and Conservatives under Borden, over Laurier's Liberal anti-conscriptionist rump — its support drawn largely from French Canadians, non-British immigrants and radical labour elements — dramatized the national split.

Canada Emerges on World Stage

Yet the war also had a positive impact on Canada. Industrial productivity and efficiency had been stimulated. Canada won a new international status, as a separate signatory to the Treaty of Versailles, and as a charter member of the new League of Nations. And the place of women in Canadian life had been upgraded dramatically. They had received the vote federally, primarily for partisan political reasons. But their stellar war service, often in difficult and dirty jobs hitherto thought unfeminine, had won them a measure of respect; they had also gained a taste for fuller participation in the work world. Canadian men and women, on a much broadened social scale, had been drawn into the mainstream of a western consumer civilization.

The war itself ushered in slaughter on an industrial scale, and Canada paid a high price. Among the roughly 630,000 who served in theCanadian Expeditionary Force, 425,000 were sent overseas — witnessing the horrors of battlefields at Ypres, Vimy, Passchendaeleand elsewhere. By the end, more than 234,000 Canadians had been killed or wounded in the war.

By 1919, the attempted shift to a peacetime economy was soon clouded by high inflation and unemployment, as well as disastrously low world grain prices. Labour unrest increased radically, farmer protests toppled governments in the West and Ontario, and the economy of the Maritimes collapsed. Resentment over conscription remained intense in Québec. The early national period of Canadian innocence was over.

(1919-1938) Labour Unrest and the Great Depression

Canada's population between the world wars rose from 8 to 11 million; the urban population increased at a more rapid rate from 4 to 6 million. The First World War created expectations for a brave new Canada, but peace brought disillusionment and social unrest. Enlistment in the armed forces and the expansion of the munitions industry had created a manpower shortage during the war, which in turn had facilitated collective bargaining by industrial workers. There had been no dearth of grievances about wages or working conditions, but the demands of patriotism had usually restrained the militant. Trade-union membership grew from a low of 143,000 in 1915 to a high of 379,000 in 1919, and with the end of the war the demands for social justice were no longer held in check. Even unorganized workers expected peace to bring them substantial economic benefits.

Labour Troubles

Employers had a different perspective. Munitions contracts were abruptly cancelled and factories had to retool for domestic production. The returning veterans added to the disruption by flooding the labour market. Some entrepreneurs and political leaders were also disturbed by the implications of the 1917 Russian Revolution and were quick to interpret labour demands, especially when couched in militant terms, as a threat to the established order. The result was the bitterest industrial strife in Canadian history. In 1919, with a labour force of some 3 million, almost 4 million working days were lost because of strikes and lockouts. The best-known of that year, the Winnipeg General Strike, has a symbolic significance: it began as a strike by construction unions for union recognition and higher wages, but quickly broadened to a sympathy strike by organized and unorganized workers in the city. Businessmen and politicians at all levels of government feared a revolution. Ten strike leaders were arrested and a demonstration was broken up by mounted policemen. After five weeks the strikers accepted a token settlement, and the strike was effectively broken.

Industrial strife continued, with average annual losses of a million working days until the mid-1920s. By then the postwar recession had been reversed and wages and employment levels were at record highs for the rest of the decade. Some labour militants turned from the economic to the political sphere, becoming successful early in the decade in provincial elections in Nova Scotia, Ontario and the four western provinces, and J.S. Woodsworth, the pioneering preacher-turned socialist politician, was elected in north Winnipeg in the 1921 federal election.

Mackenzie King and the New Politics

The war also left a heritage of grievances in rural society. Rural depopulation had accelerated during the war, but the farmers' frustration was directed against the Union government of Sir Robert Borden, which had first promised exemptions and then conscripted farm workers. A sudden drop in prices for farm produce increased their bitterness. In postwar provincial elections, farmers' parties formed governments in Ontario, Manitoba and Alberta, and in the federal election of 1921, won by William Lyon Mackenzie King's Liberals, the new Progressive Party captured an astonishing 65 seats on a platform of lower tariffs, lower freight rates and government marketing of farm products.

These social protests declined by the end of the decade. Industrial expansion, financed largely by American investment, provided work in the automotive industry, in pulp and paper and in mining. Farm incomes rose after the postwar recession, reaching a high of over $1 billion in 1927. The political system also offered some accommodation. Most provincial governments introduced minimum wages shortly after the war, and the federal government reduced tariffs and freight rates and introduced old-age pensions. By the end of the decade the impetus for social change had dissipated. Even wartime prohibition experiments had given way to the lucrative selling of liquor by provincial boards.

Great Depression

But the good times of the late 1920s didn't last. In fact, they masked brewing trouble in financial markets, and the coming trauma of theGreat Depression. For wheat farmers it began in 1930 when the price of wheat dropped below $1 a bushel. Three years later it was down to about 40 cents and the price of other farm products had dropped as precipitously. Prairie farmers were the hardest hit because they relied on cash crops, and because the depressed prices happened to coincide with a cyclical period of drought, which brought crop failures and a lack of feed for livestock. Cash income for prairie farmers dropped from a high of $620 million in 1928 to a low of $177 million in 1931 and did not reach $300 million until 1939.

Disaster also struck many industrial workers who lost their jobs.Unemployment statistics are not reliable partly because there was no unemployment insurance and so no bookkeeping records, but it is estimated that unemployment rose from three per cent of the labour force in 1929 to 20 per cent in 1933. It was still 11 per cent by the end of the decade. Even these figures are misleading: the labour force included only those who were employed or looking for work, excluding most women. Those identified as unemployed were often the only breadwinners in the family.

Role of Government Evolves

Voters turned to governments for an economic security that the system could not provide. Most governments were slow or unable to respond and were replaced by others at the first opportunity. King's Liberals, elected in 1926 after a brief period of Conservative rule, were again rejected in 1930, this time in favour of a Conservative government under R.B. Bennett. New political parties arose across the ideological spectrum, contesting the 1935 federal election — theCo-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF), Social Credit and the short-lived Reconstruction Party — with promises to regulate credit and business.

Even Bennett's Conservatives promised improvements (see Bennett's New Deal), and Mackenzie King and the Liberals, who won the election, spoke vaguely of reform. At the provincial level, the Union Nationale was elected in Québec under Maurice Duplessis and Social Credit in Alberta under William Aberhart. Older parties in other provinces often turned to new and more dynamic leaders who promised active intervention on behalf of the less privileged.

Governments tried to provide emergency relief, but they too soon needed help. Prairie farmers needed relief in the form of food, fuel and clothing, but they also needed money for seed grain, livestock forage and machinery repairs. Neither municipal nor provincial governments could meet these demands for assistance; in the drought year of 1937 almost two-thirds of Saskatchewan's population required some relief. Other provinces had declining revenues but were not as close to bankruptcy, with the possible exception of Alberta. Inevitably, as the Depression continued, the federal government had to contribute to relief costs.

The role of governments changed, but not dramatically. Most governments would have preferred to provide jobs by undertaking major public-works projects, but with declining revenues and limited credit the cost of materials and equipment was prohibitive. Direct relief was cheaper in the short run. Governments did become more involved in the regulation of business: mortgages and interest payments were scaled down by legislation, and new regulatory institutions such as the Bank of Canada and the Canadian Wheat Board were established. The major expansion of the bureaucracy, however, would come only after the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939.

Trade-union activity revived with the beginning of industrial recovery: by 1937 trade-union membership was back to the 1919 level. Canadian auto workers and miners followed the American lead and formed industrial unions. Their effectiveness was limited by the opposition of Ontario Premier Mitchell Hepburn and Duplessis in Québec, and the significant gains, once again, would come only during the war.

A New Culture: Cars and Radio

During the 1920s and 1930s, two machines may have done more than the highs and lows of the business cycle to alter the Canadian way of life: the automobile and the radio. The 1920s were the decade of the car — in 1919 there was one car in Canada for every 40 people; 10 years later it was one car for every 10. The car created Canadian suburbs and altered the social patterns of the young.

In the 1930s it was the radio: there were half-a-million receiving sets in 1930 and over a million by 1939, bringing news and entertainment into most Canadian homes. The changes brought about by mass production and popular entertainment posed problems for Canadian identity. The tariff (see Protectionism) provided Canadian jobs by ensuring that cars and radios would be assembled in Canada. There was little concern at the time for one economic side effect: the expansion of U.S. manufacturing branch-plants. But there was concern for the broadcasting of American programs by Canadian radio stations. The result was the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, with French and English networks broadcasting a combination of Canadian and popular American programs. By 1939 Canadians looked to governments to provide cautious assistance in maintaining Canadian identity.

(1939-1945) Second World War

Before the outbreak of another world war, Canada played host to the first overseas visit by a reigning British (and Canadian) monarch. King George VI and Queen Elizabeth (later called the Queen Mother) spent one month crossing the country by train. In an age before television, it was a dazzling event, one of the greatest public spectacles in Canadian history. The royal couple was greeted by enormous crowds wherever they went in both French and English Canada, and the tourwitnessed the first-ever royal walkabout — when the couple plunged into a crowd to shake hands at the National War Memorial in Ottawa. The underlying purpose of the visit was to rally support in North America for the coming Allied war against Nazi Germany, and it wasn't long before Canada was once again transforming itself into a warrior nation.

Sacrifice and Social Change

As the previous war had, the Second World War reinvigorated Canada's industrial base and elevated the role of women in the economy; women earned good incomes at jobs created by the huge demand for military materiel, and also vacated by men going to war. More than a million Canadians served full-time in the armed forces between 1939-1945, allowing Canada to play a critical role in theBattle of the Atlantic, the Allied bombing campaigns over Europe, the invasions of Italy and Normandy, and the subsequent liberation campaign in western Europe. More than 45,000 Canadians died fighting in Hong Kong, Dieppe, on the Atlantic and across Europe.

Canada's political landscape had been fundamentally changed by the First World War. During the Second, many predicted another transformation. In 1943 the socialist Commonwealth-Co-operative Federation (CCF) party, a product of 1930s political discontent, stood highest in new public opinion polls. It became the official Opposition in Ontario in 1943 and in 1944 won decisively in Saskatchewan. In Québec, Maurice Duplessis's Union Nationale recaptured power. Federally, Québec's Bloc populaire retaliated against conscription in 1944. Once again it seemed that the traditional Canadian party system would become a casualty of a European war.

Liberal Era Dawns in Ottawa

In the federal election of 11 June 1945 — held while thousands of veterans were just beginning to come home — Canadians returned the Liberal Party to office. Mackenzie King's majority was very small, but his survival is nevertheless remarkable: among Allied wartime leaders, only King and Stalin led their countries through both the war and the peacemaking.

In 1945, the Liberals added a new commitment to social welfare and Keynesian management of the economy (see Keynesian Economics). Liberal welfare policies — including family allowance begun in 1944, and unemployment insurance (see Employment Insurance), begun in 1940 — attracted many workers and farmers, and rebuffed the challenges from the CCF on the left and the Conservatives on the right. Although the national Liberals continued to enjoy support in all regions and from all economic groups, the CCF and Social Credit held power, respectively, in Saskatchewan and Alberta throughout the 1950s and into the 1960s, and Social Credit governed BC from 1952 to 1972.

(1945-1971) Cold War and the Québec Agenda

Some historians have attributed Liberal political success to the postwar period's unparalleled prosperity, and to consensus on foreign policy arising from Cold War fears — few objected when Canada joined the United Nations (UN) in 1945 or, four years later, signed the North Atlantic Treaty (NATO), and then followed this by sending troops to NATO bases in Europe in 1951. Canadians understood that the nation needed political stability, and a highly competent cabinet and bureaucracy, after depression and war.

Louis St. Laurent and Korea

The Korean War once again embroiled Canadian troops in overseas combat, this time as part of a UN-led coalition of 16 countries fighting the Communist forces of China and North Korea. Nearly 27,000 Canadian military personnel served in Korea between 1950-1953. Five hundred sixteen Canadians lost their lives, and about 1,200 more were wounded.

In 1954, Canada's prosperity, and the national consensus on Cold War issues and other foreign policy matters began to disappear. There was a sharp economic slump in 1954, followed by worries that Canada's postwar boom was too dependent upon (mainly American)foreign investment. The cabinet's competency obviously weakened in 1954 when three prominent ministers, Douglas Abbott, Lionel Chevrier and Brooke Claxton, resigned from the government of Prime Minister Louis St. Laurent. In 1956 the Pipeline Debate revealed apparent Liberal arrogance and political clumsiness. Western allies also became divided during the Suez Crisis when France, Britain and Israel attacked Egypt, and the U.S. and Canada did not support them. The Crisis put Canadian diplomat Lester Pearson on the world stage, as a pioneer of UN peacekeeping, as a means of defusing the conflict.

John Diefenbaker

On 10 June 1957 the Conservative Party ended the Liberals' long reign in Ottawa. Most significant in explaining the victory was the Conservatives' choice of John Diefenbaker as leader. He brought a flamboyance and a populist appeal that his predecessor, George Drew, completely lacked. He was also a western Canadian who understood and shared the area's grievances against Ottawa. Diefenbaker's brief first term saw taxes cut and pensions raised. The new government also took Canada into the North American Aerospace Defence (NORAD) agreement with the U.S., and two years later scrapped the Avro Arrow interceptor and purchased Bomarc missiles, effective only with nuclear warheads.

Seeking escape from the confines of a minority government, Diefenbaker called an election for 31 March 1958. Although the Liberals now had Lester Pearson as leader, Diefenbaker won 208 of 265 seats on the strength of his charisma, his "vision" of a new Canada and his policy of northern development. His support was well distributed, except in Newfoundland (which had become the 10th province in 1949).

No one had predicted the extent of the Conservative triumph, but that did not prevent many commentators at the time from forecasting a Conservative dynasty and a return to the two-party system. Today, historians and political scientists tend to consider the 1958 election as an aberration that neither reflected nor affected the fundamental character of Canadian politics. Yet closer scrutiny reveals a lasting imprint. Since 1958 Conservatives have commanded western Canadian federal politics, and Liberals have found western seats increasingly difficult to obtain. On the other hand, Conservatives, who won 50 seats in Québec in 1958, did not recover from Diefenbaker's failure to build upon his victory there for more than 25 years.

Provincial Political Change

The CCF and the Liberals began rebuilding almost immediately—the Liberals by appealing to urban Canadians and Francophones, and the CCF by strengthening its links with organized labour. Provincial bases were important in this reconstruction. Social Credit governments in Alberta and, to a much lesser extent, BC assisted the Liberals. Within five days in June 1960, the Liberals were elected in Québec and New Brunswick. In Québec, Jean Lesage modernized Québec liberal traditions and introduced the Quiet Revolution.

In Saskatchewan, the CCF made sacrifices for its federal counterpart. Long-time Saskatchewan Premier Tommy Douglas went to Ottawa to lead the CCF's heir, the New Democratic Party, whose formation was an attempt to create a closer link with the labour movement. Without Douglas, the NDP in Saskatchewan bravely introduced medicare in 1962 and, under the lash of a scare campaign, lost the next election to the Liberals. Medicare, however, proved successful and soon became a popular national program.

By 1962 Diefenbaker's 1958 "vision" of Canada had become a nightmare to some and a joke to others. There had been postwar peaks in unemployment, record budget deficits and, in May 1962, a devaluation of the dollar. But neither Pearson nor Douglas made much impact as national leaders before the election of 18 June 1962; the Conservatives stayed in power as a minority government. By early 1963 the cabinet began to bicker, members resigned ostensibly on the issue of Canadian defence policy, and finally the government collapsed. In a bitter 1963 election campaign Diefenbaker charged that the U.S., which had openly criticized his refusal to accept nuclear weapons on Canadian soil, was colluding with the Liberals to defeat him. The Liberals brushed off the attack and excoriated Diefenbaker for alleged incompetence. On 8 April 1963, the Liberals won a minority government.

Lester Pearson

The Pearson government sought to be innovative, and in many ways it was — the armed forces were unified, social welfare was extended, and a distinctive new national flag was unveiled in 1964. The party also became ever more identified with the "politics of national unity," dedicated to containing Québec's sovereigntist aspirations. In reality all parties shared the need to deal with Québec's demands for changes in Canada's federal system.

These years were marked by personality quarrels and numerous Cold War-related political scandals, especially the Munsinger Affair. They were also notable for the establishment of the Canada Pension Planand the signing of the Canada-U.S. Automotive Products Agreement, a treaty intended to give Canada a larger share of the continental auto market. Desperate to escape from the minority straitjacket, Pearson called an election for 8 November 1965. He won only two more seats, remaining two short of a majority.

Centennial and Expo

In 1967, Canada marked its Centennial birthday, and the world came to celebrate in Montréal at Expo 67 — a world's fair notable for the striking architecture of many of its pavilions, including the U.S. contribution: a giant geodesic dome. Montréal, then Canada's largest city, had come into its own as a confident, stylish and multilingual metropolis.

That same year the Conservatives replaced Diefenbaker with Nova Scotia Premier Robert Stanfield. Pearson resigned at the end of 1967, to be succeeded by Pierre Trudeau, who largely restored party unity. The choice of Trudeau emphasized the Liberals' commitment to finding a solution to the "Québec problem." Trudeau's vigorous opposition to Québec nationalism (see French Canadian Nationalism) and "special status" won support in English Canada, while his promise to make the French fact important in Ottawa — through official bilingualism, for example — appealed to his fellow Francophones. Conservatives and the NDP found difficulty in developing a similarly appealing platform, not least because both lacked support in Québec. In 1968, Québec's place in Confederation and Trudeau's personality dominated federal political debate. This dominance endured almost uninterrupted into the 1980s.

Pierre Trudeau

In 1968 Trudeau took the country by storm — winning a majority by appealing across class lines and even across regional barriers with his personal charisma and his 60s-era insouciance. Canadians hadn't seen a politician like him. The Liberals won more seats west of Ontario than since 1953. Over the next few years, Trudeau's harsh response to terrorism in Québec during the 1970 October Crisis, the growth of leftist sentiment in the NDP, and Conservative leadership bickering strengthened Trudeau's position. However, when he called an election for 30 Oct 1972, the Liberals' position was considerably weaker. Their emphasis on biculturalism angered many English Canadians who feared fundamental changes in their lives and their nation; many were also unhappy with the cuts in defence and particularly in the forces dedicated to NATO. The Liberals were returned to power but with only a minority government, supported by the NDP under leader David Lewis.

(1972-1980) The Inflation Curse and Regional Divides

A month before the 1972 election, Canadians were glued to their television sets, watching an unfolding international drama that was a mixture of politics and hockey. Amid Cold War tensions, the best hockey players from Canada and the Soviet Union squared off in the 1972 Summit Series. Paul Henderson scored the most famous goal in hockey history, winning the series for Canada on September 28 in Moscow. But it was a narrow victory, and the Soviets had shaken Canadians' confidence in themselves as the finest hockey players on the planet.

Parti Québecois

Two years later, Canadians were back at the voting booth in the 1974 federal election. Trudeau's reformist legislation and his opposition to the Conservative policy of anti-inflation wage and price controlsbrought many working-class voters to his side, especially in BC and Ontario. The Liberals won another majority, dependent for their support upon Québec and urban Ontario. After 1974 Trudeau gave indecisive leadership. Personal problems, weakness in his cabinet and intractable economic difficulties — including oil-price shocks and other inflationary pressures — plagued his government between 1974 and 1979. He surged in popularity in 1976-77 when René Lévesque'sParti Québécois gained power in Québec, prompting fears in English-speaking Canada about national unity, which many considered Trudeau well-equipped to handle.

In 1976, Montréal once again became the focus of world attention as host of the 21st Summer Olympic games. Innovative, though ultimately costly, new facilities were built including a distinctive concrete stadium (nicknamed "the Big O). For the first time in Olympic history, the host nation did not win a gold medal.

Joe Clark

Three years later, in May 1979 Opposition leader Joe Clark defeated Trudeau — losing Quebec but sweeping English Canada — for a minority Conservative government. In December the Clark government presented a tough budget and lost a subsequent non-confidence motion, and an election was called for February 1980. Cleverly manipulating the Conservatives' internal differences, the Liberals under Trudeau (who had resigned and then returned) regained their majority in an election in which Ontario swung strongly behind the Liberals, whose policies on energy resource pricing they favoured and the West abhorred. The Liberals won no seat west of Manitoba and only two there. Deep regional divisions in Canadian politics resulted from economic strategies marking a fragmented party system, which mirrored a fragmented nation.

Terry Fox

In the summer of 1980 a young man with only one leg ignited the interest of Canadians the way no politician could. Terry Fox's cross-country Marathon of Hope began in Newfoundland and ended on theTrans-Canada Highway at Thunder Bay, Ont.—only halfway to Fox's Pacific goal. Fox died the following summer, but by then he was a national icon, and the annual Terry Fox Runs he inspired would go on to raise hundreds of millions of dollars for cancer research, in countries around the world.

(1981-1992) The Constitution Decade

After 1980, Trudeau's government followed a nationalist course for a time. The National Energy Program offered great incentives to encourage domestic ownership in the petroleum industry, but it was seen in the West, especially Alberta, as meddling with provincial resource rights. Trudeau was also instrumental in keeping the country unified, by campaigning along with other "No" forces in the 1980 Québec referendum on sovereignty association.

Trudeau then set out to "patriate" the Canadian Constitution from Britain, and to create the Charter of Rights and Freedoms and entrench it in the new Constitution. After a long series of negotiations with provincial leaders, the patriated Constitution was signed in Ottawa in 1982 by Queen Elizabeth — but it left a festering political problem because Québec's René Lévesque, alone among the premiers, had refused to endorse the document.

Brian Mulroney

Trudeau became ever more unpopular as inflation, interest rates and unemployment rose, and in 1984 the Liberals paid the price. The Conservatives had replaced Clark with a bilingual Quebec business executive, Brian Mulroney, in 1983. The Liberals chose John Turner as Trudeau's successor a year later. Turner quickly called an election. The result was an overwhelming Conservative victory.

In Ottawa meanwhile, Mulroney had tried and failed to win the Quebec government's endorsement of the Constitution via theMeech Lake constitutional accord, which became the central political drama of his first term in office. His government also negotiated a contentious free trade agreement with the U.S., which became a major election issue in 1988. Mulroney won another, though smaller, majority government and in 1989 Canada and the U.S. began a new trading regime that was later expanded to include Mexico. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) contributed to a greater integration of the North American economy and, its critics would argue, a harmonization a weakening of Canadian cultural protections.

Outside the political arena, two very different dramas captured Canadians' attention during this time. On 23 June 1985, an Air India Boeing 747 flying from Toronto and Montreal to London, was blown up over the Atlantic, killing all 331 people on board, including 268 Canadians, mostly of Indian ancestry. The worst terrorist attack in Canadian history revealed deep flaws in Canada's domestic police and security services. It also led to a 20-year investigation and prosecution that yielded the conviction of only one conspirator, Sikh-Canadian Inderjit Singh Reyat.

In 1988 Calgary welcomed the world to the Winter Olympics. The city put on a party the likes of which the winter games had never seen. But once again, as in Montreal, the host nation failed to win a gold medal.

Two Failed Accords

In 1990, the Meech Lake Accord officially died, after several years of failed efforts to win approval among all the provincial governments. Québec reacted angrily, as did a handful of Mulroney's Quebec MPs, who quit the Conservative caucus to form the separatist Bloc Quebecois in Parliament, under the leadership of former cabinet minister Lucien Bouchard. Wounded, but still pressing for a constitutional solution, the Mulroney government and the provinces worked out a new deal called the Charlottetown Accord (seeCharlottetown Accord: Document). Despite support from all of the major parties and provincial governments, the Accord was also rejected — this time in a national referendum in October 1992. The rejection was probably as much the result of the angry public mood created by the worst postwar recession as the contents of the Accord itself. Canadians were also weary after more than a decade of constitutional wrangling, which had dominated the national agenda.

(1993-2005) Liberal Hegemony — and Collapse

In October 1993, the Liberals under Jean Chrétien were elected with a majority government. The Conservatives were reduced to only two seats, and the Official Opposition became the Bloc Québécois. Another Québec Referendum, in 1995, resulted in an exceedingly narrow victory for the "no" side.

Despite these national unity troubles, a buoyant economy and a fragmented opposition led to the re-election of the Liberals with a second majority in 1997. The Progressive Conservatives remained in the doldrums. However, the Reform Party — a western-based, right-wing, populist movement led by its founder Preston Manning — had its big breakthrough in 1997, becoming the Official Opposition. Yet in spite of its success, Reform had divided the conservative vote across Canada. Dislodging the Liberal hold on power appeared unlikely without some entente with the PCs. As Chretien governed, his opponents squabbled among themselves, with conservative voices increasingly calling for a serious effort to "unite-the-right."

Balancing the Budget

The federal government's budget deficits had reached alarming levels by the 1990s, and Chrétien and his finance minister Paul Martinembarked on an aggressive program to cut spending and balance the budget, which they did in 1998. The Liberals were aided in this effort by revenues from the Goods and Services Tax (GST), introduced by Mulroney, and by downloading some federal costs to provincial governments. Nevertheless, they produced Canada's first balanced budget in 30 years.

The following year the largely self-governing Inuit homeland ofNunavut was officially created across two million square kilometres of the eastern Arctic, becoming Canada's third territory.

War in Afghanistan

Canadians welcomed the new millennium in 2000, and re-elected the Chrétien Liberals with a third majority government. The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, soon transformed government agendas across the western world, especially Canada, which now faced rampant American security concerns over their long, undefended northern border. Canadians played a unique role on "9/11," particularly on the East Coast, offering refuge and hospitality to airline passengers from the hundreds of trans-Atlantic aircraft diverted to Canadian airports.

In 2002, Chrétien dispatched a small number of troops to join the U.S. counter-terrorism effort in Afghanistan — a military commitment that ramped up considerably in 2006, when Canada sent a battle group to fight Taliban insurgents around the southern Afghan city of Kandahar. Over the next eight years, 158 Canadian soldiers would die in Afghanistan, and hundreds more would be wounded.

Paul Martin Takes Helm

In 2003, after a period of Liberal infighting, Chrétien was replaced as party leader and prime minister by Paul Martin. Martin took over a party that had grown complacent in power, and was beset by a growing scandal over the abuse of government funds, by Liberal-friendly firms in Quebec. Martin tried to deal with the "Sponsorship Scandal," as it was called, by appointing a public inquiry, which found evidence of illegal kickbacks of cash to the Liberals by Quebec businessmen who had received government contracts.

Although Martin was personally exonerated by the inquiry, the Liberal brand took a beating. Under Martin they were reduced to a minority government in the 2004 election, and two years later they were defeated by the newly-united political right, under a new Conservative banner.

(2006-2014) Rise of the West

Stephen Harper ended 13 years of Liberal rule, winning a minority government in 2006. His Conservatives were handed a second minority in 2008, but captured their long-sought majority in Parliament in 2011 — an election that saw the NDP elevated to Official Opposition status for the first time in the party's history.

The Commodity Juggernaut

An Albertan, Harper's political rise coincided with an economic power-shift under way in Canada. Since Confederation the country'smanufacturing heartland of southern Ontario and Quebec had provided the bulk of the country's wealth, and determined much of its politics. But in the 21st Century, the growing importance of Pacific Coast trade with Asia, and the vast oil (see Oil Sands) and mineral resources of B.C., Alberta and Saskatchewan made the West the economic engine of the country. On the East Coast, a smaller renaissance was taking place in Newfoundland and Labrador, where oil and other natural resources were turning once-poor provinces such as it (and Saskatchewan) into providers of jobs and exporters of wealth.

As if to reinforce Canada's new westward orientation, Vancouver hosted the Winter Olympics in 2010, and Canadian athletes captured the largest number of medals, to that date, in the country's Olympic history.

Economic Uncertainty

Despite its booming resource sector, Canada's economy was hit by the 2008 global financial credit crisis and subsequent recession, although the country's banks weathered the storm better than many other western nations. But the job losses, and the further erosion of the manufacturing base, took their toll on government finances, and Canada was once again running budget deficits. Even so, Harper was judged by many Canadians the leader best able to manage the economy.

One of Harper's main political goals since coming to office was to re-make the country along social and economic conservative lines, and to strike a blow against the Liberal Party, which had governed Canada for most of its history. In 2011 he'd succeeded in putting the Liberals into third place in Parliament. But the Conservatives had failed to make lasting inroads in the important political battleground of Quebec. And by 2013, the Liberals had a young, new leader from that province — Justin Trudeau, son of the former prime minister — threatening Harper's vision and the Conservative hold on power.

Catholicism

Catholicism

The Greek word katholikos, meaning "general" or "universal," refers most commonly to the CHRISTIANITY that is in communion with the pope and the Church of Rome, that is, the beliefs and practices of a Catholic Church. The modern ecumenical movement often refers to all Christians as sharing in the church's Catholicism, which is derived from the universal headship and reign of Christ. (Many Protestant denominations include the word "Catholic" in their creeds, referring thereby to the Christian Church as a whole.)

The term is not biblical: St Ignatius of Antioch (d about 110 AD) was the first person known to have referred to the "Catholic church." St Vincent of Lerins (5th century) later defined the Catholic faith as "that which has been believed everywhere, always, and by all." In the church's belief, God is the creator and father of all, and God the son (Christ) has a universal kingdom, the church. The earliest Christian churches, established amid great linguistic, cultural and ethnic diversity, regarded themselves as constituting one holy Catholic church of Christ.

The Roman Catholic Sacraments

The Roman Catholic Church recognizes 7 religious acts, or sacraments: baptism, normally of infants; confirmation; the Eucharist (communion), celebrated centrally in the mass (public worship) and offered only to the baptized; confession, which involves the petitioner's penance and absolution by a priest; ordination (admission to one of 3 clerical ranks); marriage; and unction (anointing), normally administered only if the recipient is seriously ill or death is imminent.

Government of the church is by a hierarchy of bishops, priests and deacons under the authority of the pontiff (supreme priest), or pope, who is bishop of Rome and the head of the Catholic Church. The government of the church is located in the Vatican in Rome. Cardinals are archbishops or bishops appointed by the pope, and upon the death of a pope they are responsible for electing the next pope. Each bishop is the head of a diocese and is responsible, among other things, for ordaining new priests. Priests are responsible for their individual parishes and congregations. The doctrine of apostolic succession holds that the spiritual authority vested in the apostles by Christ has descended in unbroken succession to the present pope, bishops and priests, who possess this authority in varying degrees. All clergy must be male. The church has numerous CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS COMMUNITIES of both genders; members commit themselves to chastity, as do priests and bishops of the Western rite.

Since the early centuries of Christianity, Easter, which commemorates Christ's resurrection, has been the central feast of the liturgical calendar. Easter Sunday occurs following the first full moon after the vernal equinox. The holy week begins with Palm Sunday, one week before Easter Sunday, and is the anniversary of Jesus Christ's entry into Jerusalem. On the Thursday before Easter Sunday, Catholics commemorate the Last Supper followed by Good Friday, the day of the crucifixion. Over time, other seasonal and thematic feasts have been added; in contemporary Catholicism, Christmas (feast of the birth of Jesus) and Epiphany (feast of the early manifestations of Christ's divinity) have been highlighted along with Easter as the central feasts of the year. The Feast of the Epiphany is celebrated on the first Sunday after Christmas (seeRELIGIOUS FESTIVALS).

In 2001, Statistics Canada reported that 12 936 910 Canadians (46%) identified themselves as Catholic, and Roman Catholics (the Western rite) represented 12 793 125 Canadians (43.2%). This survey also reported that almost 50% of Canada's Roman Catholics lived in Québec, where they accounted for 83% of the province's population, the highest proportion in Canada. (Census data must be treated with care; identification with the church does not necessarily imply active membership.)

Immigration of ethnic groups who are Roman Catholic has substantially contributed to the population in Canada and represented 39% of immigrants who came to Canada before 1961. This proportion increased to 43% of those who arrived between 1961 and 1970, however, this proportion dropped to 23% of immigrants who came to Canada between 1991 and 2001. Despite the number of Roman Catholic immigrants, and the fact that Roman Catholics remain the largest religious group in Canada, their numbers are declining.

Early History of the Roman Catholic Church

Roman Catholicism came to what is now Canada with the first European explorers but was slow to establish itself. Whether JacquesCARTIER really was accompanied by chaplains in 1535, Catholicism did not take hold until Samuel de CHAMPLAIN persuaded the French church to act on his pro-settlement campaign. Circumstances favoured the missionary spirit that led to a Canadian Catholic Church; these included the interest of the papacy and the religious orders in the New World; the end of the religious wars in France; the reforms following the Council of Trent, which regenerated the French church; and the enthusiasm of the devout for missions abroad. Supported by noble benefactors and the French clergy, members of the RÉCOLLETFranciscan order established themselves in Québec in 1615, followed in 1625 by the Jesuits. The missionaries went home to France during the English occupation of 1629-32, but then returned in force (although, by order of Cardinal Richelieu, only the Jesuits were permitted to resume their work).

This young Canadian church was devoted almost entirely to evangelizing native peoples. Without neglecting the increasing number of settlers in NEW FRANCE, the JESUITS (and later theSULPICIANS) concentrated on living with the natives. The accounts of their labours, published in the JESUIT RELATIONS, helped them to hold the interest of Catholics in France. Generous donations funded the Jesuit college (1635); the SILLERY reserve (1637); the URSULINEConvent school (1639) run by MARIE DE L'INCARNATION; theHÔTEL-DIEU (1639); and VILLE-MARIE (1642), where the same institutions as those in Québec were established. The church supported the colony and was dominant even in politics, with the Jesuit superior often supplanting the governor.

Everything had changed by the 1650s. In 1648-50 the IROQUOISdestroyed HURONIA, and with it the Jesuits' most promising mission,STE-MARIE AMONG THE HURONS. Thereafter the Jesuits worked in scattered missions among the native peoples, but they had to devote increasing attention to the growing French population. The church received its first prelate (senior clergyman) in 1659. Though François de LAVAL was only vicar apostolic (ie, acting bishop where no hierarchy exists), he had sufficient jurisdiction to co-ordinate the establishment of the necessary institutions, including the SÉMINAIRE DE QUÉBEC. After New France's reorganization in 1663 as a royal colony, the church had to accept state intervention in joint questions (eg, establishment of parishes) and purely religious ones (eg, regulation of religious communities); in return, it could count on state support, which included money. The first diocese was established in Québec in 1674.

Gradually a distinctive Christianity developed. It was homogeneous, because Protestants were allowed into the colony only for brief visits (seeHUGUENOTS). Most members of the population practised their faith, following the severe Catholicism developed primarily by Monseigneur de SAINT-VALLIER (seeJANSENISM). The parish was the backbone of religious life and was financially administered by church wardens (the only elected officials in New France), who were usually influenced by the parish priest. In 1760 Canada had about 100 parishes, most of them run by diocesan clergy (84 members), of whom four-fifths were Canadian-born. The priests were assisted by 30 Sulpicians, 25 Jesuits and 24 Récollets, and over 200 nuns belonging to 6 communities who were responsible for educational and welfare activities. These communities of men and women could offer their services free because the king had granted them lands and financial support. This equilibrium, which characterized church-state relations from 1660 to 1760, was vulnerable to the changes in the balance between the forces that composed it.

The Church Under British Rule

After the CONQUEST of 1759-60, the Catholic Church of Québec, already weakened by the effects of war, had also to deal with new British and Protestant masters (see PROTESTANTISM). The new authorities were expected to favour the Church of England (seeANGLICANISM) and attempt to convert their new Catholic subjects. The free exercise of the Catholic rite was guaranteed in the terms of the surrender; although the practices were only tolerated by the British, gradual freedom for Roman Catholics soon evolved. Nevertheless, the British interfered in the nomination of bishops and sometimes priests, and required the clergy to communicate certain government documents to their parishioners. The QUEBEC ACT of 1774 further guaranteed free exercise of Roman Catholicism and made it easier for Catholics to enter public office. To protect the newly won freedoms the bishops preached obedience (in varying degrees), led their people in opposition to the American invaders of 1775 and sang hymns of thanksgiving for British victories over the French in theAMERICAN REVOLUTION.

In other parts of present-day Canada, the French church had established missions in the Maritimes by the early 17th century and in Newfoundland by mid-century, but non-francophone Roman Catholics soon settled in these areas as well. Late in the 17th centuryIRISH Catholics began to arrive in Newfoundland, which was under Québec's jurisdiction until 1713; that year France ceded Newfoundland to Britain by the Treaty of UTRECHT, and ecclesiastical jurisdiction over the island passed to the vicar apostolic of London. In 1796 Newfoundland became a separate diocese under Bishop J.L. O'Donel.

The Catholic Church and the Schools

One social area in which the church was always active was education. Catholic clergy throughout Canada were pioneers in early 19th- century education, establishing small local schools with teachers whose primary concern was the moral education of their charges. But toward mid-century the state began to provide schooling, thus moving into an area of social concern that had been a church responsibility for centuries. The first school Act (1841) of thePROVINCE OF CANADA was aimed at establishing a Christian but nondenominational school system. However, political realities ensured that Canada East (Québec) soon developed a dual confessional school system (Catholic and Protestant), whereas Canada West (Ontario) allowed the creation of a divided, state-supported school system, one section being nondenominational (public), the other confessional (SEPARATE SCHOOLS). The latter soon became largely Roman Catholic. In subsequent decades other provinces modelled their school systems on either the Québec or Ontario standards. As the state took over the schooling of Canadians, the confessional and Catholic schools obtained recognition in law.

During the second half of the 19th century, the Canadian Catholic hierarchy was determined to strengthen its Catholic schools, while public-school promoters argued that their "public" schools alone should enjoy the support of the state. There ensued lengthy and virulent controversies such as the NEW BRUNSWICK SCHOOL QUESTION of 1871, the MANITOBA SCHOOLS QUESTION of the 1890s and the NORTH-WEST SCHOOLS QUESTION at the turn of the century; the ONTARIO SCHOOLS QUESTION of 1912-27 was not only a fight between English Protestants and French Catholics, but also the result of a power struggle between French-Canadian and Irish-Canadian clerics within the church.

Other parts of Canada experienced similar quarrels as ethnic groups struggled for church control, but in the process some clerics learned to value diversity and to respect one another. Meanwhile, the church had founded numerous denominational institutions of higher learning. A number of Canadian UNIVERSITIES originated in this way, including theUNIVERSITY OF OTTAWA and the University of St Michael's College (Toronto). In most cases, their administration has passed gradually into secular hands.

As the church increased its influence on society, especially in French Canada, some clergy were tempted by politics. Imbued with ultramontane principles (seeULTRAMONTANISM), and fearing reforms being suggested by the Liberal Party, the Québec clergy accused that party's supporters of Catholic liberalism and denounced them at election time. In 1871 laymen supported by Bourget and Monseigneur Louis-François LAFLÈCHE published an election manifesto, the Programme catholique, which could have led to religious control of the provincial Conservative Party. The strong reaction of 3 bishops (Archbishop Elzéar-Alexandre TASCHEREAU, Monseigneur Charles LaRocque and Monseigneur Jean Langevin) and of politicians doomed the project and made public the split between moderate and intransigent ultramontanists ("Programmists").

In 1875 the groups united in a virulent denunciation of Catholic liberalism; in 1876 the election results in 2 provincial ridings were annulled because of "undue influence" by the clergy. Tension grew between church and state. Rome was consulted, and it sent an apostolic delegate, Monseigneur George Conroy, to re-establish harmony between the prelates and force them to declare that their condemnation of Catholic liberalism had not been directed against the Liberal Party. Clerical intervention in politics was thereafter more discreet.

During the latter 19th century Québec Catholicism discovered a missionary vocation that persists today. Nuns, priests and brothers first established missions in the rest of English Canada (including the present-day Prairie provinces and Northwest Territories) and the US, and then throughout the world (see alsoMISSIONS AND MISSIONARIES). Initially the Oblate missionaries from France, and Canadian clergy (mostly from Québec), founded, and strongly supported, missions, infirmaries and schools throughout the Prairies, BC and the North. The church was active in broader social concerns as well. Various 19th- century sociologists had recognized that new forms of society, with new needs, were being created by growing industrialization and urbanization. Protestants responded to the new "social question" with the SOCIAL GOSPEL movement.

By the 20th century, Québec Catholicism was preoccupied with social concerns. Aware of the problems created by the new technology, migration to the cities, and challenged by Pope Leo XIII's 1891 encyclical Rerum Novarum, the clergy developed a SOCIAL DOCTRINE to guide the new society. In Québec the Jesuits were particularly active through the École sociale populaire. Their Programme de restauration sociale (founded 1933) was the main inspiration for the political movements ACTION LIBÉRALE NATIONALE, BLOC POPULAIRE CANADIEN and, to a lesser degree, the UNION NATIONALE. They supported and directed Catholic trade unions formed from 1907 to 1920, credit unions, co-operatives and every kind of league, each of which had Roman Catholicism as its main characteristic.

Moreover, the church in Québec continued to control education. Secular activities left only about 45% of the clergy for parish duties. This disequilibrium posed few problems, since the province's clergy kept growing: 2091 in 1890, 3263 in 1920, 5000 in 1940 (a ratio of 567, 578 and 539 parishioners to each priest), exclusive of religious communities. The faithful were guided by their priests and in their religious practice emphasized parish missions, PILGRIMAGES and provincial, regional and local conferences. CATHOLIC ACTIONhelped to form "new" Catholics, whose methods disturbed traditionalists and sometimes led to conflict with clergy.

In Canadian Catholicism's commitment to sociopolitical activity, doctrine and moral teaching were stringent, and political and social involvement was uncompromising. The GREAT DEPRESSION of the 1930s again tested the readiness of Catholics to deal with major social problems. The hard times that gave birth to the CO-OPERATIVE COMMONWEALTH FEDERATION also saw the beginnings of the Catholic ANTIGONISH MOVEMENT. Many Catholic bishops condemned the CCF because of its socialist characteristics. True to its tradition the church was generally conservative, supporting the status quo and uneasy with change. WORLD WAR II brought with it an increasing awareness of the outside world among Canadian Catholics, and made the church appear to many Catholics to be too self-sufficient and complacent.

From 1850 to 1950 Catholicism became highly centralized and disciplined; while regular worship had become habitual for most Canadian Catholics, it had done so in the form of an increasing number of devotions set in a framework of intense and colourful piety. Devotion to the papacy had intensified after 1850, culminating in 1870 when the dogma of papal infallibility was defined, and successive Popes strongly encouraged special devotions, eg, to the Sacred Heart of Jesus, the Virgin Mary or Saint Joseph. The Catholic Church built upon centuries-old customs in nurturing various forms of piety, such as the Rosary, the scapular, adoration of the Blessed Sacrament, and the Forty Hours; pilgrimages became popular, both to shrines in Europe and the Holy Land and to various shrines in Canada. The crucifix adorned most Canadian Catholic homes, and wayside crosses and shrines were erected in massively Catholic areas. This intense piety would dissipate only after 1960.

Canadian Catholicism emerged from WWII as a church triumphant, as is suggested by the pageantry surrounding the 1947 Marian Congress in Ottawa and the installation ceremonies of Archbishop Paul-ÉmileLÉGER in Montréal in 1950. But the conservative administrations of Pope Pius XII and US President Eisenhower ended in the late 1950s, and the new liberal spirit emerging in the Western world began to affect the church in Anglophone Canada.

In Québec the changes were more extreme and jarring than they were elsewhere in Canada. WWII and the postwar period were a time of profound transformation for all Québec. Traditional values, even religious ones, were challenged by people wanting an expansion of missionary and community values, an increased lay role in the church and a warmer welcome for the positive values of the modern world. Some groups, eg, the Faculté des sciences sociales of UNIVERSITÉ LAVAL and the Commission sacerdotale d'études sociales, proposed modern solutions to social problems. They were in the forefront of opposition to the Duplessis government during the 1949 ASBESTOS STRIKE and inspired a collective pastoral letter of 1950 that expressed a new sensitivity to labour and to women.

Until 1959, however, Catholicism in Québec still wore the face of a conservative institution. Then the QUIET REVOLUTION of the 1960s forced the church to face some weaknesses. In just a few years, a wind of change produced both the declericalization of society (welfare, health and education passed from church to state control) and the secularization of institutions (eg, Catholic trade unions shed their confessionality to become the CONFEDERATION OF NATIONAL TRADE UNIONS), and associations, social clubs, universities and the state all adopted religious neutrality. At the same time, much of the population ceased attending worship services on Sunday, and there was a break with traditional morality, especially in sexual matters, a major exodus of members of the clergy and of religious orders, and a sharp drop in religious vocations. The hierarchy and the clergy as a whole seemed overwhelmed, and kept prudent silence.

The renewal of Catholicism after 1960 was also apparent in the church's new openness to other Christians and other religions. Catholics, Anglicans, LUTHERANS and other Protestants cooperated in certain missionary activities, in social justice endeavours and in local and regional pastoral initiatives.

The Church and Vatican II

In 1959 Pope John XXIII announced the convening of an ecumenical council, and the Catholic faith throughout the world began to seek new forms of expression and witness. In Vatican Council II (1962-65) international Catholicism was caught up in a whirlwind of change and challenge that sought to revitalize all areas of Christian concern, from theology to political action, from spirituality to administration, from ecumenism to moral codes. A number of Canadians (eg, Cardinal Léger, theologian Bernard LONERGAN and humanitarian JeanVANIER) emerged as leaders of the aggiornamento (modernization movement) in various spheres of activity.

The church in Canada could no longer rely on social custom and constraint, as it had done in the past, to ensure church attendance or to influence government decision making. The effects were particularly marked in Québec, where the Quiet Revolution coincided with the church's international renewal. The loosening of these ties to society led to a decade or more of generalized confusion for many Canadian Catholics. Those who had attended mass every Sunday fearing the pain of sin learned the importance of personal responsibility in attendance at worship. Those who saw the cleric as "another Christ" discovered that he was also human. Those who were concerned over sexual sin as "the only sin" discovered the importance of loving God and one's neighbour. Churchmen learned to share some authority and Catholics were called upon to take some responsibility.

One sign of Catholic renewal was a softening of the teaching on marriage. Before 1960 a Roman Catholic needed special permission to marry a non-Catholic, and the non-Catholic partner was required to agree, in writing, that the couple's children would be educated in the Catholic faith. After Vatican II the church discovered the primacy of conscience and the real Christian faith of many non-Catholic Christians. This led to less stringent disciplinary dictums, many Catholic pastors now acknowledging that the children born of a mixed marriage are best raised in the church of the more committed Christian partner. The ecumenical campaign was strengthened in the process.

Indeed, Vatican II and the papal documents that followed in its wake constitute a milestone in the history of the Roman Catholic Church. New bridgeheads were established on the shores of a postmodern world whose links with the Christian church had been deteriorating since the 17th century. The fear of the world that characterized so much of previous spirituality became an open-hearted movement towards contemporary humanity. There was greater emphasis on the church as a people of God, and less on the dominant hierarchy; the laity made some advances (although in the early 1980s Canadian women were lobbying for access to the hierarchy through women's ordination); Protestants were promoted in the eyes of the Roman Catholic Church from the rank of heretics to that of "separated brethren"; the developing nations were given their due as an area of major concern to the church; the scarecrow of socialism became acceptable ideology under certain circumstances; and the treatment reserved for linguistic, cultural and political minorities was recognized as a valid test of the quality of governments.

Forms of worship changed as well after Vatican II, and many of the changes centered on the renewed emphasis on the people as the principal constituent of the church. Although communion remains the focal point of the mass, it is not linked as closely to individual confession as it formerly was. Priests now conduct mass facing the people, and the Latin of the Tridentine rite (the Latin Mass used until the introduction of the current Mass by Vatican Council II) has given way to vernacular languages. The practice of preaching and interpretation of scripture has been revived, and lay members of the congregation participate more fully in the various aspects of the worship service. There is also a resurgence of congregational singing and popular hymnology. At the same time, certain features of popular piety (eg, benedictions, stations of the cross) have virtually disappeared (see alsoCHARISMATIC RENEWAL).

In the wake of Vatican II the Canadian Catholic Church reassessed its attitude toward "other" linguistic and cultural groups. For instance, in early Ontario and English Canada the leadership of various Catholic churches had been largely French or French Canadian (there was no francophone bishop in the Maritimes before 1912). As an English-speaking (largely Irish) hierarchy came to the fore in these areas, ethnolinguistic polarization developed simultaneously in the ranks of the hierarchy and in Canada generally. The result was a Canadian Catholic Church that pretended to be united, but was in fact separated on English-French lines. While Rome preached bilingualism for the Canadian church, Canada's bishops indulged in their own brand of ethnocultural warfare.

The new spirit that prevailed after 1960 led Canada's Catholics to reassess their attitudes. At the centennial of CONFEDERATION (1967) as well as on several other occasions ranging from the adoption of Québec's charter of the French language (1977) to Canada's constitutional debate (to 1982), the bishops of Canada, Québec and Ontario issued a series of statements on the question of minority language rights and the status of French and English in Canada. For the first time in a century, the leaders of Canada's Catholic church were constructively coming to grips with an issue that had long divided them. The Canadian Catholic Church had practised bilingualism before Confederation, a policy that had served it well in evangelizing much of Canada, and it returned to this policy. Given the church's numbers and geographic distribution, the language policy contributed immensely to French-English understanding in Canada. Today Canada has 34 dioceses in the French sector, and 37 dioceses belonging to the English sector.

The turbulence of the 1960s and 1970s dramatically affected ecclesiastical institution: the network of parishioners and parishes remained virtually intact; the organization of religious communities of men and women rethought their objectives; confessional schools and some private colleges expanded; a new plan for parish action and greater lay participation in religious activities thrived. The episcopacy more frequently joined in ECUMENICAL SOCIAL ACTION, and took positions on such topics as BIRTH CONTROL and ABORTION (1977, 1981) and the economic crisis (1982). But it is perhaps at the level of popular religion that the continuity and the hopes are most visible, given (among other things) a new interest in scripture, the continued popularity of pilgrimage and the growth of charismatic religion, the multiplication of small groups interested in spirituality, and the emergence of Catholic interests. For more than 100 years Protestants had outnumbered Catholics in Canada; however, by 1971, for the first time since Confederation, Catholics outnumbered Protestants.

The rapidly changing Canadian church experienced a climactic event in September 1984 when Pope John Paul II visited Canada. This pontiff, who was seen by more people than all other popes combined, was the first reigning pope to set foot in Canada. He visited many regions, preaching a gospel of peace, reconciliation and disciplined belief. To fulfill a promise made to the residents of Fort Simpson, NWT, where he was unable to land because of fog, he returned in September 1987.

During the 1990s, the rejuvenated pride of Canada's aboriginal people led them to seek SELF-GOVERNMENT, better living conditions and more equitable treatment from the government of Canada, as well as public apologies and financial compensation from the institutions that had abused them in the past. A primary target of their grievances is RESIDENTIAL SCHOOLS, institutions that had been funded by the government of Canada and directed by Canada's leading Christian churches. An estimated one-third of Canada's aboriginal children spent some time in a residential school from the 1880s to the 1960s, a time when these schools were practically the only avenue available to aboriginal children seeking an education. Two-thirds of the residential schools were administered by the Catholic Church and entrusted to the Oblate Fathers. The latter have had to deal with allegations of physical, emotional or sexual abuse of resident children by some of the staff of the schools. Several cases are before the courts. Canada's bishops and the Oblate religious order, not to mention other churches, have responded by publicly expressing their regret for any wrongdoing and harm they may have caused the aboriginal people, and offering to participate personally and financially in the healing process of the victims. Yet compensation remains a thorny issue, given that the allegations pertain to events that would have occurred more than a half-century ago.

In the 1990s, a renewed Canadian Catholic Church faced more daunting challenges. The drop in church attendance, the widespread questioning of Catholic moral teachings, the dearth of new vocations to the priesthood and the religious life, and the waning of church influence in public life have caused many faithful to give serious thought to their faith. The simultaneous chaotic growth of NEW RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS, new age thinking, secular values and new fundamentalisms, movements that frequently challenge or deny the ordered world of traditional Catholicism, contribute to changes in attitudes. Yet some remember that the triumphant Catholic religious world that they grew up in was a temporary phase in Christian history. (See EVANGELICAL AND FUNDAMENTALIST MOVEMENTS.)

In 2004, the Catholic Conference of Bishops reported 80 active and 59 retired cardinals, archbishops and bishops in 5 681 parishes and missions in Canada. Nearly 6 000 diocesan priests, more than 3 500 religious order priests and approximately 2 300 religious brothers and sisters serve Catholics in Canada.

NIVE VOISINE and ROBERT CHOQUETTE

Eastern Rite Catholic Churches

A small but important segment of Canada's Christian population belongs to the Eastern Catholic or Eastern Rite churches, which trace their theological, canonical and spiritual traditions to the early Christian culture of the Eastern Mediterranean world. As distinctive ecclesial entities, the Eastern Catholic churches emerged only after Christian unity had succumbed to a centuries-long process of estrangement, culminating in the defeat of the Greek city, Constantinople, by Western crusaders in 1204 and the establishment of a Latin patriarchate, with the tacit support of Pope Innocent III. With the exception of the Maronite Catholic Church and the Italo-Albanian Catholic Church, which claim always to have been in communion with the bishop of Rome, all Eastern Catholic churches originated from Western missionary efforts to return Eastern Christians to the immediate jurisdiction of the papacy, or, in the case of the Bulgarian Byzantine Catholic Church, from a spontaneous desire for union with Rome.

Throughout their history, Eastern Catholics have struggled to maintain their own traditions against the Latinization or absorption into the Latin (ie, Western or Roman) Church and have sometimes experienced hostility from their parent Eastern ORTHODOX Church and the Oriental Orthodox churches. The negative effects of Latinization are most evident in the collapse of traditional Eastern forms of monastic life, which have been supplanted by Western-style religious orders, and in the liturgy. For Eastern Christians in Canada (and the US), the prohibition of married parish clergy, dating from the 19th century, is perhaps the most painful reminder of Latinization.

Although in union with Rome, each Eastern Catholic church remains distinct, particularly in liturgical practices and devotional life. Eastern Catholics celebrate their faith in one of 5 different rites: the Alexandrian, Antiochene, Chaldean, Armenian and Byzantine rites. Historical circumstances, especially the persecution and suppression of Eastern Christians in the Ottoman and Russian empires and in the former Soviet Union, forged an unbreakable bond between religion and ethnicity that helped Eastern Christians to survive but now hinders future growth outside their traditional homelands. In keeping with the theological understanding of the church current at the time of their establishment, Eastern Catholic churches frequently were reduced to the status of a mere rite in the larger Roman Catholic Church. The Second Vatican Council and subsequent papal pronouncements have corrected this, so that today Eastern Catholic churches are treated as sister churches of the Roman Catholic Church.

In 1990 the Code of Canons of the Eastern churches was promulgated by Pope John Paul II. According to this document, Eastern Catholic churches may be grouped into 4 types:

1. patriarchal;

2. major archiepiscopal;

3. metropolitan; and

4. other churches.

A patriarch is elected during the periodic meetings of the synod of bishops of a particular church. After his election and enthronement, he requests communion from the Pope. A major archbishop is elected in the same manner as a patriarch, but before he is enthroned, his election must be confirmed by the Pope. The Pope names metropolitans (a bishop with authority over other bishops) after consulting a list of candidates presented by the bishops of a particular church.

The Maronite Catholic Church traces its origins to disciples of the fourth-century monk Saint Maron in Lebanon. By the eighth century this largely monastic-centered community elected a bishop as their head. During the twelfth century the Maronites came in contact with Latin Christianity thanks to the Crusaders, and in 1182 they formally confirmed their relations with Rome. Lebanon remains the home for most Maronite Catholics. In Canada, the bishop of the Eparchy of Saint-Maron de Montréal leads some 80 000 adherents in 14 parishes. The Italo-Albanian Catholic Church, dating from the 15th century, comprises 2 dioceses in southern Italy and the monastery of Santa Maria di Grottaferrata south of Rome.

In the wake of the Council of Florence in 1439, groups of Armenian, Coptic and Syrian Christians entered into short-lived unions with the Roman Catholic Church. These churches were revived in the 18th century: the Armenian Catholic Church in 1742, the Coptic Catholic Church in 1741, and the Syrian Catholic Church in 1782. A small apostolic exarchate of Armenian Catholics exists in Canada, and there are 8 Coptic Catholic parishes throughout the country. Syrian Catholics, centered in Lebanon, Syria and Iraq, currently have no official presence in Canada. Other Eastern Catholic churches include the Chaldeans (1553), the Syro-Malabars (1599), the Ethiopians (1626), the Melkites (1744), the Ukrainians (1595-1596), the Ruthenians or Rusyns (1646), the Romanians (1700), Byzantine Catholics of Krizevci in the former Yugoslavia (1777), the Bulgarians (1861), the Syro-Malankarans (1930), the Hungarians (1912), the Greeks (1911) and the Slovaks (1968).

Members of Christian Orthodox groups represented 1.6% of Canada's population in 2001; Statistics Canada reported that this was a 24% increase over 1991. Numerically significant in Canada are the Melkite, Slovak and Ukrainian Catholic churches.

The Greek-Melkite Catholic Christians are organized under the bishop of the Eparchy of Saint-Sauveur de Montréal (created in 1984) and number approximately 43 000 adherents across Canada. Slovak Catholics received their own diocese in 1980, when Pope John Paul II created the Eparchy of Saints Cyril and Methodius of Toronto, originally under the care of Bishop Michael Rusnak. There are 7 parishes for approximately 10 000 members in Canada.

The Ukrainian Catholic Church is the largest Eastern Rite Catholic church in Canada with roughly 150 200 faithful in more than 350 parishes. Brought by Ukrainian immigrants at the end of the 19th century, the church received its first bishop in 1912 when Pope Pius X appointed Nicetas Budka to the episcopate. The head of the Synod of Ukrainian Catholic Bishops is located in Winnipeg and he oversees the Canadian metropolitan province, consisting of 5 dioceses (eparchies): the metropolitan see of Winnipeg, and the eparchies of Edmonton, Toronto, Saskatoon and New Westminster. Religious orders contribute significantly to the spiritual life of Ukrainian Catholics, and include the Order of Saint Basil the Great or Basilian Fathers, Redemptorist Fathers, Studites, Basilian Sisters, Missionary Sisters of Christian Charity, Sisters Servants of Mary Immaculate, and Sisters of St Joseph.

Theological education of clergy and laity is assured by the church's own Holy Spirit Seminary in Ottawa. The Metropolitan Andrey Sheptyts-ky Institute of Eastern Christian Studies was established in 1992 as part of the Faculty of Theology of Saint Paul University in Ottawa and offers specialized studies in Eastern church history and theology. A scholarly journal, Logos, gives Ukrainian and other Eastern Catholics a strong voice in the academic world.

T. ALLAN SMITH

Authors contributing to this article:

Growth of the Church

In the late 18th century many Scottish Roman Catholics settled on PEI and in Nova Scotia. For various personal, political and ecclesiastical reasons, however, the church there and in the other settled parts of present-day Canada, excepting Newfoundland, remained under the jurisdiction of the bishop of Québec until 1817; that year Nova Scotia was made a separate vicariate apostolic under Bishop Edmund Burke. Thereafter, new vicariates and dioceses appeared as settlement spread. The growth of the church in Anglophone Canada was spurred especially by the arrival in the 19th century of large numbers of Irish immigrants.

By the early 19th century, numerous Catholics in LOWER CANADA[Québec], especially the rising professional class, had distanced themselves from their church. Priests could not direct the populace as they had done before, and people began to neglect their religious practices. Church authorities thwarted efforts from secular denominations and won official recognition from the bishop to encourage education (including religious vocations), and revive the Catholic faith. But the 323 priests could not meet the needs of Québec's 500 000 inhabitants and could no longer count on the support of male religious communities, which (apart from the Sulpicians) had disappeared, or of female ones, which were in difficulty. The Parti PATRIOTE (founded 1826), which had mass support, proposed a liberal program that alarmed the clergy and began a Protestant-style proselytism, primarily around Montréal. The beleaguered bishop of Québec won the nomination of a Montréal auxiliary, Monseigneur Jean-Jacques LARTIGUE, who became bishop of Montréal in 1836. Lartigue condemned the REBELLIONS OF 1837but, because of this support for the government, he temporarily alienated himself from his people.

The church was as badly shaken as the rest of society by the insurrection's aftereffects, but it was the first to recover. Under the dynamic new bishop of Montréal, Monseigneur Ignace BOURGET(installed in 1840), the clergy assumed increasing power. Bourget set out to "Christianize" and "regenerate" society, applying the ideas of his predecessor and using the populist sermons of the French Monseigneur Charles de Forbin-Janson (seeEVANGELISM) to advantage. Bourget made full use of the religious press that was run by skilled laymen; he headed fund drives in the city and made begging trips to Europe. He worked for the people, allying his church with Rome on liturgy, theological studies and devotions. He supported campaigns for public morality (eg, TEMPERANCEcampaigns and the fight against "evil" literature led by the Oeuvre des bons livres and the Cabinets de lecture paroissiaux), ran a social-assistance program for the poor, the sick, the orphaned and the handicapped, and preached social mutual assistance. The Montréal example was followed throughout Québec, though often to a lesser degree.

During the same period a sharp increase in religious vocations led to more and better-served parishes; the number of dioceses (10 in 1900) rose with the birthrate. The priests, now more numerous, often involved themselves in secular activities and seemed to run everything in Québec. Parishes periodically called in specialists (Jesuits, Oblates, Redemptorists, Dominicans and Franciscans) to preach at spiritual-renewal missions. The lay response seemed satisfactory: most people were now practising and an elite could even be called devoted.

Catholicism in both English and French Canada was aligned with international Catholicism, whose leadership was becoming progressively more defensive and fearful of post-revolutionary (American and French) Western society. During the early 19th century sectarian violence grew, as demonstrated by the brawling of Irish Catholics with Irish Protestants (seeORANGE ORDER) on several occasions in Upper Canada, and by the fighting involved in the so-called SHINERS' WAR of the 1840s. Catholic churchmen saw the social upheaval resulting from INDUSTRIALIZATION andURBANIZATION as the work of the devil, the French Revolution,FREEMASONRY, SOCIALISM and laissez-faire capitalism, and they urged the faithful to return to a stable Christian social order such as that prevailing in the Middle Ages.

Friday, February 20, 2015

L’Encyclopédie de l’histoire du Québec / The Quebec History Encyclopedia

Religious History of Canada

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Latulippe, Rose

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(1867-1913) Immigration and Industrialization

Sir John A. Macdonald

Grand Trunk Railway

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Depression Soup Kitchen

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War Memorial Archway

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Avro Arrow

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Winning Goal, 1972

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The Church Under British Rule

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Growth of the Church

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