SHORT OVERVIEW OF THE HISTORY
OF ANCIENT PRE-HELLENISTIC SYRIA
Palaeolithic and first occupation
Earliest evidence of hominid presence in Syria dates back to
about c. 700,000 years ago, when the first crude stone tools are being found.
Neanderthal occupation is suggested by bones found at sites such as Dederiyeh
Cave near Aleppo. Around 100,000 years, the great migrations of Anatomically
Modern Humans replace Neanderthals in Levantine area. Climatic changes c. 15,000
years ago pushed humans in the Near East to the adoption of new occupation and
food-procuring strategies.
Neolithic developments and Uruk presence in Syria
Around 10,000 years ago, the adoption of agriculture marks
the all-important transition into Neolithic. Syria witnesses the emergence of
the first Pre-Pottery Neolithic cultures in the Near East, including famous
sites such as Mureybet and Abu Hureyra, created by sedentary populations with
increasing dependence on food-producing systems. The advent of pottery c. 6,500
years ago, visible at sites such as Mureybet, is then (c. 4,500) follwed by the
appearance of large, urban sites adhering to the traditions of Mesopotamian
‘Ubaid and Uruk cltures. Early urban sites in Syria include Tell Brak and Tell
Mashnaqa.
Early Bronze Age polities
In the mid-3rd millenium BC, Syria witnesses the appearance
of large urban sites and whole state systems. At first believed to be an
extension of the Mesopotamian culture, the most prominent sites of Ebla and Mari
rather suggest an indigenous process of formation of a state governed by a
literate elite. Mesopotamian and Egyptian influences are visible in art, writing
and religoious iconography. Syria can be thus considered as a cradle of one of
the earliest known human civilisations.
Akkadian Occupation and Amorite kingdoms
Syrian kingdoms fall prey to the newly-fromed Akkadian empire
in the late 3rd millenium BC. Although foreign administration and Akkadian
writing system are imposed on Syrian cities, local artistic styles as well as
religious traditions and dialects continue to thrive. The waning power of the
Sargonic dynasty made way to the rise of Amorites, a Semitic people who
occupied, from the begining of the 2nd millennium BC, large parts of Syria,
including cities such as Mari. After a brief breakdown in urban tradition, the
glory of cities such as Brak and Ebla was rejuvenated by the rise, first of the
Hurrian-speaking Mittanian Empire (1500-1300 BC), then of the Middle Assyrian
Empire (1350-1000 BC).
Iron Age and the Great Empires
At the beginning of the 12th century BC, the balance of power
in the eastern Mediterranean is upset by the advent of the Sea Peoples. This
series of migrations causes some states (e.g. Hittite and Mittanian Empires,
Mycenean Greece) to collapse, while others (e.g. Egypt Middle Assyrian Empire)
significantly dwindle in power. Syria then experiences the emergence of
competing principalities, sometimes described as Neo- or Syro-Hittite.
Neo-Hittite kings, speaking either Luwian or Aramaic languages, draw heavily
from the artistic and architectural traditions of the fallen Hittite empire,
which is visible in the Early Iron Age levels of sites like Aleppo and
Carchemish. A majority of the independent Luwian-Aramaean polities is then
subdued by the Neo-Assyrian Empire (900-609 BC), which later falls prey to
Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon and finally Cyrus of Achaemenid
Persia.
Partially adapted from P.M.M.G. Akkermans & G.M. Schwartz 2003 The archaeology of Syria : from complex hunter-gatherers to early urban societies (c. 16,000-300 BC), Cambridge: CUP
http://cdli.ucla.edu/collections/syria/history_of_syria_en.html
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About the Ancient Area of Greater Syria
Syria From the Bronze Age to Roman Occupation
Map of Ancient Syria. Public Domain. Samuel Butler Atlas of the Ancient and Classical World (1907/8).
A Desirable Location - At the Crossroads
Greater Syria Covered Several Modern Nations
In antiquity, the Levant or Greater Syria, which includes modern Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestinian territories, part of Jordan, and Kurdistan, was named Syria by the Greeks. At the time, it was a landbridge connecting three continents. It was bounded by the Mediterranean on the west, the Arabian Desert on the south, and the Taurus mountain range to the north.
The Syrian Ministry of Tourism adds that it was also on the crossroads of the Caspian Sea, the Black Sea, the Indian Ocean, and the Nile. In this vital position it was the hub of a trade network involving the ancient areas of Syria, Anatolia (Turkey), Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Aegean.
Ancient Divisions
Ancient Syria was divided into an upper and lower section. Lower Syria was known as Coele-Syria (Hollow Syria) and was located between the Libanus and Antilibanus mountain ranges. Damascus was the ancient capital city. The Roman emperor known for dividing the emperor into four parts (the Tetrarchy) Diocletian (c.
245-c. 312) established an arms manufacturing center there. When the Romans took over, they subdivided Upper Syria into multiple provinces.
Syria came under Roman control in 64 B.C. Romans emperors replaced the Greeks and Seleucid rulers. Rome divided Syria into 2 provinces, Syria Prima and Syria Secunda. Antioch was the capital and Aleppo the major city of Syria Prima. Syria Secunda was divided into two sections, Phoenicia Prima (mostly modern Lebanon), with its capital at Tyre, and Phoenicia Secunda, with its capital at Damascus.Important Ancient Syrian Cities
Doura Europos
The first ruler of the Seleucid dynasty founded this city along the Euphrates. It came under Roman and Parthian rule, and fell under the Sassanids, possibly through an early use of chemical warfare. Archaeologists have uncovered religious venues in the city for practitioners of Christianity, Judaism, and Mithraism.
Emesa (Homs)
Along the Silk Route after Doura Europos and Palmyra. It was the home of the Roman emperor Elagabalus.
Hamah
Located along the Orontes between Emesa and Palmyra. A Hittite center and capital of the Aramaean kingdom. Named Epiphania, after the Seleucid monarch Antiochus IV.
Antioch
Now a part of Turkey, Antioch lies along the Orontes River. It was founded by Alexander's general Seleucus I Nicator.
Palmyra
The city of palm trees was located in the desert along the Silk Route. Became part of the Roman Empire under Tiberius. Palmyra was the home of the third century A.D Roman-defying queen Zenobia.
Damascus
Called the oldest continually occupied city in the word and is the capital of Syria. Pharaoh Thutmosis III and later the Assyrian Tiglath Pileser II conquered Damascus. Rome under Pompey acquired Syria, including Damascus.
Decapolis
Aleppo
A major caravan stopping point in Syria on the road to Baghdad is in competition with Damascus as the oldest continually occupied city in the world. It was a major center of Christianity, with a large cathedral, in the Byzantine Empire.
Early Contacts
Syrian Natural Resources
The major ethnic groups that migrated to ancient Syria were Akkadians, Amorites, Canaanites, Phoenicians, and Arameans.To the fourth millennium Egyptians and third millennium Sumerians, the Syrian coastland was the source of the soft woods, cedar, pine, and cypress. The Sumerians also went to Cilicia, in the northwest area of Greater Syria, in pursuit of gold and silver, and probably traded with the port city of Byblos, which was supplying Egypt with resin for mummification.
For additional information, see:
"Literary Sources for the History of Palestine and Syria: Contacts between Egypt and Syro-Palestine during the Old Kingdom," by Mary Wright; Dennis Pardee. The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 51, No. 3. (Sep., 1988), pp. 143-161.
"Egypt and the East Mediterranean from Predynastic Times to the End of the Old Kingdom," by William A. Ward. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol. 6, No. 1. (May, 1963), pp. 1-57.
Ebla
The trade network may have been under the control of the ancient city Ebla, an independent Syrian kingdom that exerted power from the northern mountains to Sinai. Located 64 km (42 mi) south of Aleppo, about halfway between the Mediterranean and the Euphrates. Tell Mardikh is an archaeological site in Ebla that was discovered in 1975. There archaeologists found a royal palace and 17,000 clay tablets. Epigrapher Giovanni Pettinato found a Paleo-Canaanite language on the tablets that was older than Amorite, which had previously been considered the oldest Semitic language. Ebla conquered Mari, capital of Amurru, which spoke Amorite. Ebla was destroyed by a great king of the southern Mesopotamian kingdom of Akkad, Naram Sim, in 2300 or 2250. The same great king destroyed Arram, which may have been an ancient name for Aleppo.For more on Ebla, see
"Literary Sources for the History of Palestine and Syria: The Ebla Tablets," by Lorenzo Viganò; Dennis Pardee. The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 47, No. 1. (Mar., 1984), pp. 6-16.
"The Royal Archives of Tell Mardikh-Ebla," by Giovanni Pettinato. The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 39, No. 2. (May, 1976), pp. 44-52.
Accomplishments of the Syrians
The Phoenicians or Canaanites produced the purple dye for which they are named. It comes from mollusks that lived along the Syrian coast. The Phoenicians created a consonantal alphabet in second millennium in the kingdom of Ugarit (Ras Shamra). They brought their 30-letter abecedary to the Aramaeans, who settled Greater Syria at the end of the 13th century B.C. This is the Syria of the Bible. They also founded colonies, including Carthage on the north coast of Africa where modern Tunis is located. The Phoenicians are credited with discovering the Atlantic Ocean.The Aramaeans opened trade to southwest Asia and set up a capital in Damascus. They also built a fortress at Aleppo. They simplified the Phoenician alphabet and made Aramaic the vernacular, replacing Hebrew. Aramaic was the language of Jesus and the Persian Empire.
Conquests of Syria
Syria was not only valuable, but vulnerable, since it was surrounded by many other powerful groups. In about 1600, Egypt attacked Greater Syria. At the same time, Assyrian power was growing to the east and Hittites were invading from the north. Canaanites in coastal Syria who intermarried with the indigenous people producing the Phoenicians, probably fell under the Egyptians, and the Amorites, under the Mesopotamians.In the 8th century B.C., the Assyrians under Nebuchadnezzar conquered the Syrians. In the 7th century the Babylonians conquered the Assyrians. The next century, it was the Persians. At the death of Alexander, Greater Syria came under the control of Alexander's general Seleucus Nicator, who first established his capital on the Tigris River at Seleucia, but then following the Battle at Ipsus, moved it into Syria, at Antioch. Seleucid rule lasted for 3 centuries with its capital at Damascus. The area was now referred to as the kingdom of Syria. Greeks colonizing in Syria created new cities and expanded trade into India.
Sources:
The Library of Congress - SYRIA - A Country Study, Data as of April 1987Supplemental: [www.syriatourism.org/] Syria - Ministry of Tourism
Syrian Cities
A Manual of Geographical Science: Ancient Geography, by W. L. Bevan (1859).
http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/syria/qt/110607Syria.htm
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___ History of Syria |
| HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Present-day Syria is only a small portion of the ancient geographical Syrian landmass, a region situated at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea from which Western powers created the contemporary states of Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Israel in the post-Ottoman era of the early twentieth century. Greater Syria, as historians and political scientists often refer to this area, is a region connecting three continents, simultaneously cursed and blessed as a crossroads for commerce and a battleground for the political destinies of dynasties and empires. Exploited politically, Greater Syria also has benefited immeasurably from the cultural diversity of the people who came to claim parts or all of it, and who remained to contribute to the remarkable spiritual and intellectual flowering that characterized Greater Syria’s cultures in the ancient and medieval periods. Throughout history, Greater Syria has been the focal point of a continual dialectic, both intellectual and bellicose, between the Middle East and the West. Today, Syria remains an active participant in the trials and tribulations of a troubled and volatile region. Early History Since before 2000 BC, Syria has been an integral part of, or the seat of government for, powerful empires. The struggle among various indigenous groups as well as invading foreigners resulted in cultural enrichment and significant contributions to civilization, despite political upheaval or turmoil. The ancient city of Ebla existed at the center of an expansive empire around 2400 B.C. The chief site, unearthed in the vicinity of Aleppo in the 1970s, contained tablets providing evidence of a sophisticated and powerful indigenous Syrian empire that was involved with, and probably controlled, a vast commercial network linking Anatolia (today part of Turkey), Mesopotamia (an ancient region of southwestern Asia in present-day Iraq), Egypt, and the Aegean and Syrian coasts. The language of Ebla is believed to be the oldest Semitic language, and the extensive writings of the Ebla culture are proof of a brilliant culture that rivals those of the Mesopotamians and ancient Egyptians. After the King of Akkad (Mesopotamia) destroyed Ebla, Amorites ruled the region until their power was eclipsed in 1600 B.C. by the Egyptians. The following centuries saw Syria ruled by a succession of Canaanites, Phoenicians, Hebrews, Aramaeans, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, Seleucids, Romans, Nabataeans, Byzantines, Muslim Arabs, European Christian Crusaders, Ottoman Turks, Western Allied forces, and the French. Although Syria has absorbed the legacies of these many and varied cultures, the very existence of this string of foreign dominating powers exemplifies the political, economic, and religious importance of Syria’s strategic location. Highlights of early Syrian history include the impact made by such dominant powers as the Phoenicians, Aramaeans, and Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Empires. During the second millennium B.C., the seafaring Phoenicians established a trade network among independent city-states and developed the alphabet. The Aramaeans, overland merchants who had settled in Greater Syria at the end of the thirteenth century B.C., opened trade to southwestern Asia, and their capital at Damascus became a city of immense wealth and influence. Aramaic ultimately displaced Hebrew as the vernacular in Greater Syria and became the language of commerce throughout the Middle East. Beginning in 333 B.C., with the conquest of the Persian Empire, Alexander the Great and his successors brought Western ideas and institutions to Syria. Following Alexander’s death in 323 B.C., control of Greater Syria passed to the Seleucids, who ruled the Kingdom of Syria from their capital at Damascus for three centuries. In the first centuries A.D., Roman rule saw the advent of Christianity in Syria. Paul, considered to be the founder of Christianity as a distinct religion, was converted on the road to Damascus and established the first organized Christian Church at Antioch during the first century. The Coming of Islam Syria remained at the center of the new Christian religion until the seventh century, when the area succumbed to Muslim Arab rule. Prior to the Arab invasion, Byzantine oppression had catalyzed a Syrian intellectual and religious revolt, creating a Syrian national consciousness. The Muslim Arab conquest in A.D. 635 was perceived as a liberating force from the persecution of Byzantine rule, to which Syria had been subjected since A.D. 324. But with Damascus as the seat of the Islamic Umayyad Empire, which extended as far as Spain and India between 661 and 750, most Syrians became Muslim, and Arabic replaced Aramaic. Syrian prestige and power declined after 750 when the Abbasids conquered the Umayyads and established a caliphate in Baghdad. Syria then became a mere province within an empire. Muslim control of Christian holy places was elemental in provoking the first major Western colonial venture in the Middle East, when European Crusaders established the principalities of Edessa, Antioch, Tripoli, and the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem between 1097 and 1144. The ensuing jihad against the foreign occupation was a unifying force for Arabs in Greater Syria until the area became a province of the Ottoman Empire in 1516. Syria’s economy did not flourish under Ottoman rule, which lasted for 400 years. Yet, Syria continued to attract European traders and with them Western missionaries, teachers, scientists, and tourists whose governments began to agitate for certain rights in the region, including the right to protect Christians. A Brief Period of Independence The period between the outbreak of World War I in 1914 and the granting of France’s mandate over Syria by the League of Nations in 1922 was marked by a complicated sequence of events during which Syrians achieved a brief period of independence (1919– 20). However, three forces were at work against Arab nationalism: Britain’s interest in keeping eastern Mesopotamia under its control in order to counter Russian influence and to protect British oil interests; the Jewish interest in Palestine; and France’s determination to remain a power in the Middle East. Ultimately, Syria and Lebanon were placed under French influence, and Transjordan and Iraq, under British mandate. The termination of Syria’s brief experience with independence left a lasting bitterness against the West and a deep-seated determination to reunite Arabs in one state. This quest was the primary basis for modern Arab nationalism. The French Mandate The period of French Mandate brought nearly every feature of Syrian life under French control. This oppressive atmosphere mobilized educated wealthy Muslims against the French. Among their grievances were the suppression of newspapers, political activity, and civil rights; the division of Greater Syria into multiple political units; and French reluctance to frame a constitution for Syria that would provide for eventual sovereignty, which the League of Nations had mandated. Only in the wake of a widespread revolt instigated by the Druze minority in 1925 did the French military government begin to move toward Syrian autonomy. Despite French opposition, the Soviet Union (today Russia) and the United States granted Syria and Lebanon recognition as sovereign states in 1944, with British recognition following a year later. These Allied nations pressured France to leave Syria, but it was not until a United Nations resolution in February 1946 ordering France to evacuate that Syrians finally attained sovereignty. By April 15, 1946, all French troops had left Syrian soil. Independence Syria endured decades of strife and turmoil as competing factions fought over control of the country’s government following independence in 1946. This era was one of coups, countercoups, and intermittent civilian rule during which the army maintained a watchful presence in the background. From February 1958 to September 1961, Syria was joined with Egypt in the United Arab Republic (UAR). But growing Syrian dissatisfaction with Egyptian domination resulted in another military coup in Damascus, and Syria seceded from the UAR. Another period of instability ensued, with frequent changes of government. The Arab Socialist Resurrection (Baath) Party (hereafter, Baath Party), with a secular, socialist, Arab nationalist orientation, took decisive control in a March 1963 coup, often referred to as the Baath Revolution. The Baath Party had been active throughout the Middle East since the late 1940s, and a Baath coup had taken place in Iraq one month prior to the Baath take-over in Syria.
Assad, approved as president by popular referendum in March 1971, quickly moved to establish an authoritarian regime with power concentrated in his own hands. His thirty- year presidency was characterized by a cult of personality, developed in order to maintain control over a potentially restive population and to provide cohesion and stability to government. The dominance of the Baath Party; the socialist structure of the government and economy; the military underpinning of the regime; the primacy of members of the Alawi sect, to which Asad belonged, in influential military and security positions; and the state of emergency imposed as a result of ongoing conflict with Israel further ensured the regime’s stability. Nevertheless, this approach to government came at a cost. Dissent was harshly eliminated, the most extreme example being the brutal suppression in February 1982 of the Muslim Brotherhood, which objected to the state’s secularism and the influence of the “heretical” Alawis. Moreover, the country’s economy suffered, and progress was hindered by an overstaffed and inefficient public sector run overwhelmingly according to Baath Party dictates.
Hafiz al Assad died in 2000 and was promptly succeeded by his son, Bashar al Assad, after the constitution was amended to reduce the mandatory minimum age of the president from 40 to 34. Bashar was then nominated by the Baath Party and elected president in a popular referendum in which he ran unopposed. From the start, the younger Assad appeared to make economic and political reform a focus and a priority of his presidency. He has faced resistance from the old guard, however. After a brief period of relaxation and openness known as the Damascus Spring (July 2000–February 2001), dissent is once again not tolerated in Syria, and it appears that any reforms will be slow in coming. Nevertheless, Assad reportedly is slowly dismantling the old regime by enforcing mandatory retirement and replacing certain high-level administrators with appointments from outside the Baath Party. 2011 Syrian Uprising Syria was under an Emergency Law since 1962, effectively suspending most constitutional protections for citizens. Its President Hafez al-Assad led Syria for nearly 30 years, banning any opposing political party and any opposition candidate in any election. The Syrian government justified the state of emergency to the fact that Syria was in a state of war with Israel. According to BBC News, the government and ruling Ba'ath Party own and control much of the media. Criticism of the president and his family is banned and the domestic and foreign press are censored. The state exercises strict internet censorship and blocks many global websites with local appeal, including Facebook and YouTube, as well as opposition sites. The popular uprising, taking place in various cities in Syria, began on 26 January 2011. Like other pro-democracy rebellions which have erupted across the Middle East, the protests have taken the form of various types, including marches and hunger strikes. In reacting to the largest uprising to take place in the country for decades, Syrian security forces have killed hundreds of protesters and injured many more. | ||||
http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/History/Syria-history.htm
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The Significance of Syria In the Bible History and Civilizations
Introduction:
Present map of Syria
Syria, Syria, a noticeable word the world hears each day and watches its horrible events on each TV screen. All mourn and pity the hundreds killed every day. Everyone is asking how to stop the ongoing bloodshed? The grudges and hatred are driving the Syrians to kill their neighbors. Innocent children, their mothers and seniors are terrified, and everyone yells Hey! Wow; “where are the people of the world and good men to show mercy, rescue and help!!!”
The Arab League met repeatedly, and disagreed; the United Nations met and talked a lot and couldn’t agree. Each one offers a solution in their own way making things more difficult and making a cold war. The storm arises the wind comes from everywhere and the waves get higher, the war goes on, and now the ship goes away from the shore of peace, without hope and without help leaving only one way up and that is to resort to the Lord of the universe. I wish all fighters with conscious would wake up and use their mind now and act wisely before it is too late!
The blame first falls on you, Syria ... As Jesus said, “A man’s enemies will be the members of his own household” as stated in (Math 10:36.)
Syria, remember how was your status in ancient history as compared to today? Did you change history or cover your face? you were so called the” Holy Land”, making tourists come from the west and east. Why? Because the Lord, Jesus Christ’s Holy feet walked on your land, and made it to be called Holy. We read in( Math 4:24) ”News about Him spread all over Syria, and people brought to Him all who were ill with various diseases, those suffering severe pain, the demon-possessed, those having seizures, and the paralyzed, and he healed them”
Jesus gave the greatest sermon in history, (Sermon on the Mount) on Mount Hermon, in Syria according to the Gospel of( Matthew ch-5-7 ) Syria, you are the cradle of the prophets and apostles and the center that spreads the gospel from Antioch in Syria to the world, and paved the way of the Forefathers of the Church to continue.
Syria, do you remember you are called “the cradle of civilizations and Semitic peoples, and their languages?” God spoke on Mount Horeb, Hermon, and Golgotha, and most of the prophecies on your land were fulfilled. Do you remember well, with the entire world, of the biblical history and privileges of what God has done through all of Syria and also to the whole world! It seems that the world ignored or disregarded to study such great history of Syria!! Here today as they sit and only to watch TV, they are amazed of what they see happening in Syria right now.
That is the objective of the author in this article to provide a manual of study and a call for prayer to Syria.
With Alshukr (thanks) to the readers and to friends who kindly distributed this article. (please read the end of the article)
Syria as I saw it in 2010
First - the physical condition: Let me just take a quick glance of what I've seen in the year 2010, about two years before the civil war, and I will start with the visitor’s impression and then the tourist. First, what the eye sees such as the construction on the road, and in particular the new town of Ghasom in Horan (my home town). What really surprised me more was that not one of the old houses was suitable to live in. Today the old town is like a museum ruins. New modern towns have been developed around the old towns. Moreover the strangest thing was when I was touring the city of Der’a, I saw the city as if I was in one of the most developed cities. Some said that more than 500% new modern buildings have been added. I soon notice that the old town did not exist and there was no trace of it. Now I’ve just arrived on my journey to the borders of Jordan. Der’a is 5 miles from the border of Jordan, but now it is all one. Der’a has expanded so much, East, West and North. I noticed a lot of garages for cars, and fine hotels, car rentals and running yellow taxis in all the streets. There is no doubt that the enumeration of the population explosion in a period of twenty years, therefore, think how much more the population has increased with the new buildings! Der’a is just like if you were to visit any modern city in the World!!Damascus the capital:
Damascus being a historical city is pided into two parts, the old and modern, Damascus is a modern capital like other modern cities.The only difference is that it has a vivid Arabic character and splendor of its own Damascus has grown so much in the surrounding suburbs and neighboring areas and it has become (Greater Damascus). Damascus, was called Fayha, (oasis of the Arab world) it was and still is a beacon and inspiration to all poets of the East and West. It has a glorious history, considered a world archaeological museum and the world’s oldest living city in the world. It is equipped with the most modern technology to respond to any problem in the city.Secondly – Educationally
Syria, relatively, has now a very high standard of education it is FREE FOR ALL LEVELS!!!! For this it attracts a high number of Arab students to colleges and higher education. Syria also has always supported the goal to eliminate illiteracy of all segments of society, and they did. The goal is that a high percentage of people today have a baccalaureate (High School) for males and females. The proportion of female staff in government departments has reached 40%, while the number of students in high schools and universities around a few million which is relatively very good. There are five public universities and a good number of private universities in Syria which offer a variety of specialties. Syria is considered one of the rich countries in its Petroleum and Industries. Syria has highly developed as it seems in 2010!!Thirdly –the agricultural aspect:
For almost forty five years, the rain was scarce and the soil in the land was dry. As an example, the Horan area is considered the richest in the Middle East in agriculture because of its soft fertile soil, which was called “The Basket bread of Rome”. Therefore, the land has remained barren due to “the lack of rain”. But now, it is almost unbelievable for the eye to see the fresh vegetables and fruits that dress the land after years of drought and scarcity. I took a car and went through some villages in Horan and there you will find in all the villages and houses, tall trees and olive grove in particular, which made many of the displaced to return to farmland for attention by digging wells for water. On traffic highway we saw fresh fruits and vegetable markets and stores, restaurants and gas stations. This has been undoubtedly the greatest factor that improved the standard of living progress and prosperity to the economy in general. Here our visit ended.Part I: The significance of Syria in Bible history and civilization
First - Syria in the Bible:
The Greater and Minor Syria were mentioned approximately 300 times in the BibleIn the Gospel of (Luke 2:1-2) we read: “In those days, Caesar Augustus issued a decree that a census should be taken of the entire Roman world. This was the first census that took place when Cyrenius was governor of Syria, this is exactly the time when Jesus was born in Bethlehem. Here we should mention the time of the birth of Jesus has pided history into before and after his birth (BC and AD).
Damascus is mentioned about 60 times in the Bible and Antioch 20 times; When in this holy spot of the, Kingdom World, God has chosen prophets in the Old Testament, and Apostles in the New Testament. We must continue to remember Jerusalem and Damascus are the ancient centers of Bible history.
In this Holy spot of the world God, the Almighty has chosen this area which has become the cradle of the prophets and Apostles who spread the word of God to the world. His prophets reveal His love in the Old Testament, and so our Lord Jesus Christ has chosen his 12 disciples to follow Him who became the apostle to spread the Gospel. There are many villages, towns and cities that still exist and carry the same names at the time of Christ, like, Damascus , Hamah, Ezra, Der’a Ethra’e, Magdal, the town of Mary Magdaline as some people think. Ethra’e (Der’a today) was the area, as some say, where Job lived close to his three wise friends. Still many cities and towns in Palestine are still called the same at the time of Christ. We may consider Jerusalem as the center of the World in Bible prophecies.
The most glorious gift to mankind is the Holy Bible, the word of God, the prophets were inspired by the spirit of God to say and write “So Says the Lord” (2Tim3:16). Further, Jesus Christ is the living word (JN1:1) and Jesus is the revelation of God to mankind (Hebrew1:1)
In addition, the Ten Commandments were given on Mount Horeb (Sinas); Isaiah, the prophet, prophesied his coming by saying his name “For to us a child is born, and he will be called Wonderful Counselor, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, and Prince of Peace”.( Isaiah 9:6) Furthermore, we read the fulfillment in (Math 1:23): “ The Angels said to Behold a Virgin shall be with child and shall bring forth a son and they shall call his name Emmanuel which being interpreted is “God with Us”.”
His birth was in miracles, and He made miracles, according to the Gospel (Math 4:24). “News about him spread all over Syria and people brought to him all who were ill with various diseases, those suffering pain, demon possessed, those having seizures, and the paralyzed, and he healed them” (Math 9:35). We also read that the Lord Jesus and the crowd went up to the Mount (Hermon in Syria) and took it as his platform and gave this greatest sermon in the world called: the “Sermon on the Mount” According to (Matthew ch. 5-7) “Sermon on the Mount” and still is considered the principles of the Kingdom of Christ to his followers. This sermon has changed the systems, concepts moral standards and constitutions of the entire world; Basic teachings of the pine Christ it is realistic by the grace of God based on love. It is considered by all leaders of the world in history, such as, Gandhi, Napoleon and many others in history.
Then we see the Lord Jesus takes with him three disciples. They were: (Peter, James and John) to Mount Hermon in the great event of The Transfiguration, as we read in (Luke 9:33); God the Father appeared in the clouds and spoke to his son Jesus Christ in glorious splendor He said: “This is my son, whom I have chosen, listen to him”. There appeared also, the two prophets, Moses and Elijah, the glory of God was like the sun which made the disciples to fall on their faces and worship. Why don’t we kneel down to him and do the same?
What a marvelous pine privilege for you, Syria to have Jesus Christ walk on your land, preach, teach and do miracles of healing (Math 4:24) We read also in (Math 9:35) “ when Jesus saw the multitudes He was moved with compassion because He saw them as sheep without a Shepherd.” We only pray that the fighting Syrian people today would look to Jesus today to visit Syria, heal their land, stop the terrible civil war and save their Souls!
Second: Syria, and the Apostle Paul
(From a terrorist to a great Apostle of God), this was the title of the film which the Syrian government has allowed to be seen in public with collaboration from all Syrian communities. It is really a good sign the government on the part of the Syrian government, and citizens to its people and all alike and everyone was appreciative and grateful and no one was against this.Additionally, the another beautiful gesture is the government issued official permit to build a memorial and a historic shrine and a statue to the Apostle Paul showing all the aspects of his life written on it some of his words from the Bible. You, the apostle Paul deserve all the glory of God and all of the earthy appreciation for spreading the Gospel in Syria the world and his inspired epistles by God!!! This shrine is located between the town of Heena and Damascus. This is the place when Jesus appeared to him on the road to Damascus. In the church building, where we sat down with our guide, Mr. Michael Shahen Baba and his kind wife, it was a glorious experience to sit down in the church to meditate, pray and thank God for the apostle Paul!!
Syria, the Epicenter of the Gospel Missions.
Antioch was the capital of the Romans in the Middle East and occupies first place in terms of engineering art and the magnificent beauty of the buildings, parks and streets, making it a place of pilgrimage for tourists. More than that, it has become worldly known for the spreading “the Gospel which is the power of God for salvation.” Congratulations to you, Syria, remember that most of your people have become Christian followers of Christ, and hundreds of great churches were built with a civilization that surpasses the Roman & Greek civilizations because it is the civilization of love and peace. Why, because it is a spiritual civilization of the Holy Gospel of peace and love through Jesus Christ our Lord. It is eternal!!Distinctive features of Antioch in Syria:
-It has become a great Christian center.- “The Disciples were called Christians first in Antioch “((Acts 11:26))
-It was the center of higher education (theological schools) which was spread all over?
- Great men emerged from Antioch, who accompanied the Apostle Paul in his travels
- Some fathers of the early church such as John the theologian known as the golden mouth came from it
Antioch was in the starting center for the Apostle Paul, Barnabas, and Luke, Mark and others who preached the world despite the difficulties, persecutions and martyrdom, but the blood of the martyrs became seeds of the church. And do not forget that the increased heresies were as Arios/Nastorian heresy and several others.
This is a reminder again to Syria that the Holy Gospel, spread to the whole world from Jerusalem and Antioch. It is our prayer that Syria will hear anew and accept the message of the gospel of Love and Peace.
Syria and the Fathers of the Church
The Fathers of the Church were a group of God’s choice, mature believers who had great talents and were gifted in preaching and evangelizing without fear. They were gifted in theology and in the defense of faith against the heresies such as the “Aryanism/Nestorianism” and many others of which was widely spread in the early centuries. The Forefathers are pided into three sections:1 –Those who lived during the Apostles’ time such as Paul, Barnabas and John and others in the first century
2 –Those who lived before the council of Nicea
3 –Those who lived during and after the council of Nicea. The ones who attended the council of Nicea were mostly from Greater Syria, the Gulf, Arabian Peninsula, Egypt, Asia Minor, Europe and other parts of the world. Also Constantine, the emperor, had attended, whom God used. His mother Helena deserves the credit by leading him to the faith in Christ. The “Church of the Resurrection” was built in Jerusalem and called by her name. Constantine, the Emperor was the one who officially introduced Christianity to be the official religion of the Roman Empire.
Let’s not forget that God used, previously, Emperor” Philip the Arab”, from Syria, who was converted with his son and were baptized by Oregon,( the famous theologian) in Bosra-Sham, some say it was the town of Shaba, and whose help in the return of exiled Christians from Arabia was very much appreciated. They were exiled by his previous pagan emperor. Emperor Phillip the Arab (he reigned from 244-249 AD)was killed with his son by his pagan General and took his place. The council of Nicea concluded, at the end, by giving us “The Apostles Creed which was and still a rock against the heresies and the philosophies contrary to the true teachings of the Gospel. Here is the literal Nicene Creed.
Nicene Creed:
We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven and earth, of all things visible and invisible.
And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only begotten Son of God, begotten of His Father before all worlds, God of God, Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten, not made, being of one substance with the Father; by whom all things were made; Who for us men and for our salvation came down from heaven, and was incarnate by the Holy Spirit of the virgin Mary, and was made man; and was crucified also for us under Pontius Pilate; He suffered and was buried; and the third day He rose again according to the scriptures and ascended into heaven, and is seated at the right hand of the Father; and He shall come again, with glory, to judge both the living and the dead; Whose kingdom shall have no end.
And we believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord and giver of life, Who proceeds from the Father and the Son; Who with the Father and the Son together is worshiped and glorified; Who spoke by the prophets; and we believe in one holy catholic and apostolic church; we acknowledge one baptism for the remission of sins; and we look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come. Amen
We should not forget the Apostle Creed 180 AD which was nearly the same as the Nicene Creed. We also must not forget that those “fathers” were of great help and great examples of faith. Some of them were killed, tortured in a painful way, crucified and burned, lived in rugged caves as mentioned in (Hebrews 11), but as has been said that the blood of the martyrs became the seed of the Church.Part II: the significance of Syria in the world history
“Syria is the cradle of civilizations:”
There is no good library in the world today without books and volumes on the history of ancient Syria.The most known historians acknowledged that Syria is the cradle of civilization not less than thirty civilizations emerged from or through Syria. All were mentioned in the Bible, in particular the Semitic people.
This is due to God’s provision and choice first and its unique, strategic geographic location. The major civilizations that appeared were the Semitic civilization and from them descended the Sumerians, Acadians Canaanites, Phoenicians, Assyrians, Hittites, Arameans, Chaldeans, the Nabataeans, Chassasinites- and all Arabs are considered Semitic people. Moreover, the Greeks and Romans were very much advanced by the factor of their own development of civilization and power. They (Greeks and Romans) are not Semitic as Europe is the descendant of Japheth as South Africa is from Ham. If we compare our modern civilization today with our modern technology in comparison, our world seems a small country, that is to say they can see, hear and speak to each other as they are neighbors!!
As prophesied by the prophet Daniel “in the last days knowledge increases.” (Dan 12:4) Our most advanced modern civilization which has some good. May God protect us from its frightening evil, to the whole World! We are now “in the last days” as the Bible tells us as we read about the prophecies of Christ according in the Gospel of Matthew Chapter 24 and other prophecies. One was of the Prophet Isaiah who predicted “And he shall judge among the nations and shall rebuke many people: and they shall beat their swords into plowshares and their spears into pruning hooks”: nation shall not lift up sword against nation, neither shall they learn war anymore.” (Is. 32:17,18). If only those who carry weapons now have to learn that they are agents of Satan. Because our God is a God of Live ,Love and Peace (Math 10:10)
Syria, the cradle of the family of Semitic languages:
We mentioned above, that Syria is the cradle of Semitic people; therefore they must have had their own Semitic languages. These languages were of the Canaanites and Phoenicians beginning from 2000 BC. The earliest date for us was 1400 BC during the Aramaic period. Their influence lasted for a long time until 600 A.D. The Aramaic language was spread throughout the Middle East especially at the time of Jesus Christ. (Jesus spoke Aramaic and some portions of the Old Testament were written in the Aramaic language). In the northern part of Syria and part of Iraq, the people spoke authentic Aramaic which has become the mother of all Semitic languages in all the Middle East.(Civilizations are developed gradually and so languages as well. Thus we find that the Aramaic language is really the mother of all languages or the Semitic dialects and from it the following branches emerged,
- Aramaic, Arabic in northern Syria, and the Euphrates. The classical Arabic is most related to Syria.
-Arabic Aramaic in Arabia with a Badawiah - dialect
- Arabic Aramaic in Ethiopia and the dialect is a Swahili dialect
- Aramaic Assyrian and Chaldean in Iraq
- Aramaic and Syrian dialect in Maaloula –Damascus and still spoken to this day
- Aramaic Nabateans, in Jordan and Yemen. The Ghassasinites came to Syria from Yemen, established their kingdom and they, in turn, improved much of the Arabic Nabateans and continued to be classical as we see it today. We must not forget that the Hebrew and Arabic came from the same root of the Aramaic. They have similarities in grammar and vocabulary. This proves that Greater Syria was actually “The cradle of family Semitic languages of all the Middle East.
Syria as the World Archaeology Museum:
Ruins! Ruins!!! And excavations, you see them everywhere you go in villages, towns and cities in Syria. There is no end to it.Today as it was yesterday, this is Syria, a world museum and a magnet for tourists and visitors, although the Museums of the West are full of the ruins of Greater Syria or (Fertile Crescent), I saw first- hand wings and full floors that occupy much space in the museums of France, Spain, England and Germany under the name of (ruins of Syria) or say, the Middle East. As we know, Greater Syria has an open book
to the civilizations of world history in the East and West. The excavators have transferred a large number of antiquities that they discovered in Syria to museums of the West, especially in the days of (colonialism), whether from Palestine or Syria or Lebanon or Jordan, Iraq. Here we find that thousands of prospectors/ archaeologists are spending a lot of money, in this way, driven by the spirit of curiosity, science and religion to discover the history of our ancestors, ancient civilizations, and their relics. This also proves the validity and sincerity of the Living Word of God, as an example, the manuscripts Imran, discovered in Jordan, acknowledged the authenticity of the Book of Isaiah as we read it today. God is eternal, so is his word!
Now come with me to Lattakia, one of the oldest and greatest places to explore the ancient ruins which take us back to the thousands of generations. Ugarit is the birthplace of the first alphabet in the world located about 15 miles from Lattakia. It was in Ugarit where the alphabetic script was first used successfully by the Phoenicians marking a great leap in the progress of human civilization. It is the name of an ancient city on the North Syrian coast opposite the island of Cyprus, 40 miles SW of Antioch; also called Ras Shamra. The city, with its port, Mina el Beida (White Harbor), was an important commercial center through which passed the trade of Syria and Mesopotamia with Egypt, Cyprus, and the Aegean area. Occasionally antiquities had been found here by local people, but in 1928 a peasant struck the roof of a buried tomb with his plow and made a discovery which attracted the attention of the authorities to come... The French authorities were in charge of Syria at the time. In 1929 archeologists from France’s famous Claude F. A. Schaefer began a series of excavations which have revealed much of the history of the site. The excavations continued until 1939 resulting in the discovery of many objects of great archeological value, including hundreds of Tablets known as “The Ras Shamra Tablets”. The French have continued digging at Ras Shamra until today, although with more involvement from the Syrians in recent years.. The excavations have revealed an extensive Late Bronze Age city (14th-13th centuries B.C) with a trace of temples and houses , most of which have revealed troves of texts. One of these famous discoveries, which provided hundreds of manuscripts on stones and some pictures and statues that after study and translation, gives us a wealth of rich information.
Come with me to the city of Aleppo, and in this city the second-greatest discovery was found, namely, (Ebla), which is located near the city of Aleppo to the West and likewise revealed the Semitic peoples like Chaldeans, Assyrian, Hittite and many more.
Then back again to Lattakia, where discoveries were discovered here with the utmost importance namely” Kingdom Marie” which dates back to the era of Abraham who passed through Damascus, and called his agent ( Eleizer of Damascus) ( Genesis 15:2). In Damascus, we find hundreds of ruins that tell about the events of the New Testament the Apostles such as the story of Paul.
In addition, the ruins of the hundreds of churches in Damascus and throughout Syria, not to mention the living centers such as “Dair Saidanaya & Maaloula” where the nuns and monks still speak the living Aramaic Assyrians dialect today.
Come with me to the ancient and historic ruins of Tadmor which is considered the capital andbride of the desert during the reign of Queen Zenobia. In Tadmor, you will find streets of Roman columns, tombs with signs of the cross, churches and priests engravings on the stones.
Now come with me to Bosra Sham, a Romanian Center contains the largest Roman Amphitheatre in Syria.
Bosra Sham is also considered a historic and religious center, where the largest cathedral was built there in its time a small miniature church of Sofia, in Istanbul in the fourth century. The Cathedral later disintegrated by Muslims after the 6th century.
The traditional church history tells us that when the apostle Matthew had visited it and so the two disciples of the sovereign who were sent by Jesus to preach, and also one of the deacons of Jerusalem had served in it. In Bosra remember also, Emperor Philip the Arab and his son, were both converted and baptized by the gifted theologian Oregon. Bosra remained the Capital of Al-Ghassasinites for centuries until the conquest of Islam. At this very time we remember ” Raheb Bouhayra” (the Heretic Monk) who was teaching the heresy of Arius and Nestorius which denied the deity of Christ. This heresy was refuted by the Nicene Creed. Raheb Bouhayra taught this very heresy to “Prophet Mohammad” which many historians and people believe that this heresy has become the mother of the Islamic religion.
It is possible that Paul the apostle went through it on his way to Arabia since it is a gateway between Damascus, Tadmor, Arabia and Iraq. It was also an important commercial center for exchanging goods and products. “I went immediately to Arabia and later returned to Damascus”. (Galations 1:17) So Bosra Sham was the capital of the Ghassasinite Kingdom at time of the Byzantine Empire.
From the Bani Ghassan tribe (the Ghassasinites) descended many Christian families in Syria, Lebanon and Jordan.
In conclusion, this is just a brief glimpse and handful of information about the Significance of Syria in the Bible and world history. It is again to give a manual to educate the readers to study further and to be more knowledgeable and thankful to God for what He has done in and through Syria to the World!! Moreover, remember to pray for God to save Syria from this agony of civil war!!
Special Appeal and Prayer to you Syria:
Syria you are in a Dangerous Storm
The wind is blowing hard from everywhere, the waves are getting higher and higher, the ship is moving astray, away from the shore of peace. No help from the U.N., East or West, hundreds being killed every day. You becoming helpless, hopeless and desperate, here is one hope to you to remember: We read in Matthew (8:23-27) “Then he got into the boat and his disciples followed him. Without warning, a furious storm came up on the lake, so that the waves swept over the boat. But Jesus was sleeping. The disciples went and woke Him, saying, Lord, save us! We’re going to drown!” He replied you of little faith, why are you so afraid? Then he got up and rebuked the winds the waves and it was completely calm. The men were amazed, and asked: “What kind of man is this? Even the winds and the waves obey him!”Syria! Cry out to God similarly and you will be saved!
Remember what Jesus has done in Syria
1. Remember, what miracles Jesus did in Syria. ”News about him spread all over Syria, and people brought to him all who were ill with various diseases, those suffering severe pain, the demon-possessed , those having seizures, and the paralyzed, and he healed them”( Matthew 4:24)
2. Remember the Lord Jesus on Mount Hermon (Jabal Sheikh) where he gave the greatest sermon of history which was and still is the principle of pine teachings in following Christ. (Matthew Ch. 5-7)
3. Remember and hear the voice of God, on Mount Hermon from the midst of the glorious cloud saying; ”This is my beloved son whom I am pleased, listen to Him” And there were two prophets Moses and Elijah and Because of the strong light of Transfiguration, the disciples fell on their faces bowing down to worship.
4. Remember, Oh! People of Syria, remember how Paul, the apostle, was converted from a terrorist to a greater apostle of God on the road to Damascus and how the Gospel was spread to the whole world first from Antioch in your land!
5. Remember and hear the voice of God from Mount Horeb to Mount Hermon toMount Golgotha. The Lord Jesus said” I am the light of the world and he who follows me will not walk in darkness but will have the light of life”.
Millions of believers are praying for you Syria, for real peace and salvation. Believe that Jesus will visit you again Syria and make miracles, he still loves you, so do we!
References:
1. The Holy Bible (Van Dyke Translation)2. Dictionary of the Arabic Bible; by Dr. Peter Abid-Al Malik and Asso. Al-Mashal library, Beirut
3. “Christianity & its literature among the pre-Islamic Arabs” by Dr. Luis Sheeko-Beirut , Dictionary of the Arabic Bible; by Dr. Peter Abid-Al Malik and Asso. Al-Mashal library, Beirut Labanon“History of Syria:, by Dr Philip Hitti, Beirut Lebanon
4. “History of Syria, Lebanon and Palestine (Vol.1); by Dr. Philip Hitti, Beirut Lebanon
5. “The significance of Ugarit in the Syria’s archeology” by Sadik Wardeh, prof of languages and a specialist in Syria’s archeology
6. Christians in the Arab East:, by Robert Brenton Betts
7. Christianity in the Middle East:, by Joyce Napper
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What was Historical Syria and Phoenicia? Is there confusion?
Introduction
The eastern Mediterranean was for millennia, an intersection of cultures, civilizations and invaders. Its unenviable position kept it fluid and undetermined as far as boundaries, divisions and government. Nevertheless, due its geography, that part of the world became a haven for various communities despite the changing faces of invaders. What is called Syria today was never the same in antiquity and the name did not mean the same location over the ages.
Over the ages various kingdoms existed in the eastern Mediterranean. Often, the area between Taurus and Asia Minor, the Arabian desert, Mesopotamia, and the Mediterranean sea was never really a single state or a single political entity. Further, the ethnic groups, that occupied that part of the world, were never of the same race or under single rule. Foreign invaders; however, forced artificial unions on the people of the region under single rule of non-homogenous ethnic groups, under the Egyptians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Macedonians, Romans...etc
Saint Jerome's Testimony Regarding Phoenicia
Saint Jerome clearly wrote c. 380 A.D. that Phoenicia existed in 231-232 A.D. (Saint Jerome, cp. xxx. 4 who ): "Damnatur Origenes a Demetrio episeopo exceptis Palaestinae...et Phoenicis atque Achaiae sacerdotibus." For further information on the history of the early Christian Church and the division of the region of the Eastern Mediterranean, please see "Church of Phoenicia and Antioch" in t his site.
The Names: Syria, the Region, and Sur (Tyre), the City
The name "Syria" was employed by the Greeks to designate the eastern Mediterranean though it was not a nation, body of nations or country such as Egypt. The name Syria was derived from the famous Phoenician city of Sur (Tyre/Tyrus) -- hence Surya, or Tsurya from the Greek Tsyrus. Tyre, along with Sidon, were established in ancient antiquity, at the very dawn well before 3000 BC. It is, therefore, understandable that the region came to be referred to after the most famous city of Sur or Tyre in the Greeks' mind. This is analogous to the empire of Byzantines being called after the city of Byzantium which, unlike Tyre, was of no importance compared to the great city of Tyre.
Names of the Same Geographical Area Varied
Formerly, Syria was erroneously believed to have been an abbreviation of "Assyria." The suggestion that the name came from old Babylonian is questionable since Assyria is actually Ashur or Athur. The only reference worth mentioning is the unknown term in old Babylonian of Suri applied to the north-eastern corner of the eastern Mediterranean. However, the Babylonians and the Assyrians used completely different names to refer to the said area: "Amurru" (the Land of the Amorites) and "Martu" (the West-Land). Further, the extreme northern part of eastern Mediterranean also known as "Khatti", or the Land of the Hittites. The most southern region was known as "Kena'nu" or "Kanaan." In the Old Testament, the whole are was called "Aram", and its inhabitant "Arameans." But there were several Biblical "Arams": "Aram-naharaim" or "Aram of the Two Rivers" -- Mesopotamia; "Paddon-Aram" (the region of Haran), in the extreme north of Mesopotamia; "Aram-Ma'rak" to the north of Palestine; "Aram-beth Rehob", "Aram-Sobah", and "Aram of Damascus." This confusion of terms and names goes to prove what was mentioned in the beginning of this essay that the area which is known today as Syria was always a fluid cluster of places and peoples that meant very little. Finally, what must be mentioned is the fact that in ancient history city-states were the norm that denoted "nations" and not geographical boundary as we understand them today.
Political Divisions, Sub-divisions and Changes
Greek
During the Greek and Roman dominations the political divisions of area were indefinite and almost unintelligible. However, the Greeks were to blame for giving the name Syria to the whole area of the eastern Mediterranean. Thereafter, Syria and Syrians became frequently used to refer erroneously to the region and the ethnic groups that inhabited that part of the world. The impact of this misnomer continued till the early 20th century. Strabo mentions five great provinces: (1) Commagen; (2) Seleucia; (3) Coelle-Syria; (4) Phoenicia; and (5) Judaea. Pliny's divisions were more numerous than those of Strabo. It appears that each city on rising to importance gave its name to a surrounding territory, larger or smaller, and this in time assumed the rank of a province. Ptolemy mentioned thirteen provinces: Cammagene, Pieria, Cyrrhestica, Seleucia, Casiotis, Chalibonitis, Chalcis, Apamene, Laodicea, Phoenicia, Coele-Syria, Palmyrene, and Batanea, and he gave a long list of the cities contained in them.
Romans
Under the Romans, the area became a province of the empire. Some portions of it were permitted to remain for a time under the rule of petty princes, dependent on the imperial government. Gradually, however, all these were incorporated, and Antioch was the capital. Under Hadrian the province was divided into two parts: Syria-Major, in the north, and Syrio-Phoenicia, in the south. The New Testament refereed to the woman who had an encounter with Christ near Sidon, as the Syrio-Phoenician woman; and, yet, referred to the same woman as the Canaanite woman, also. Towards the close of the fourth century another partition of region was made. It formed the basis of its ecclesiastical government: (1) Coele Syria; (2) Syria Secunda or Phoenicia Secunda; (3) Phoenicia Prima.
The main divisions that relate to the study of Phoenicia during the Roman and Byzantine era are the following:
- Phoenicia Prima: Maritima & Libanesis
- Phoenicia Secunda or Syria Secunda & Palmyra (see map)
- Coele Syria
- Mosul
- Bostra
- Araba
- Palastina Iudadea
- Palastina Salutaris
The Makeup of Phoenicia
Phoenicia was incorporated into the Roman cluster of regions, though Aradus, Sidon, and Tyre retained self-government. Berytus (Beirut), relatively obscure to this point, rose to prominence by virtue of Augustus' grant of Roman colonial status and by the lavish building program. Under the Severan dynasty (AD 193–235) Sidon, Tyre, and probably Heliopolis (Baalbek) also received colonial status. Under this dynasty the Eastern Mediterranean of the Romans was partitioned into two parts: Syria Coele (“Hollow Syria”), comprising a large region loosely defined as the north and east; and Canaan or Syrio-Phoenicia (both referred to in the New Testament, as indicated above) in the southwestern region, which included not only coastal Phoenicia but also the territory beyond the mountains and into the desert. Under the provincial reorganization of the Eastern Roman emperor Theodosius II in the early 5th century AD, the southwestern region was divided into two provinces: Phoenicia Prima (Maritima), basically ancient Phoenicia (and sometimes including ad Libanum-Libanesis); and Phoenicia Secunda ad Libanum-Libanesis, an area extending from Mt. Lebanon on the west and deep into the desert in the east to include the cities of Emesa (its capital -- Homs), Heliopolis (Baalbek), Damascus, and Palmyra. The confusion of territorial divisions mentioned herewith is just another example of the muddled state of being of the political division of the area.
During the period of the Roman Empire the native Phoenician language died out in the whole area and was replaced by Aramaic as the vernacular, as the case with most Semitic languages of the region. Latin, the language of the soldiers and administrators, in turn fell before Greek, the language of literature, philosophy and science.
During this time, also, Heliopolis (Baalbek) and Berytus became prominent cities. At Heliopolis the Roman emperors, particularly the Severans, constructed a monumental temple complex, the most spectacular elements of which were the Temple of Jupiter Heliopolitanus and the Temple of Bacchus. Berytus, on the other hand, became the seat of the most famous provincial school of Roman law. The school, which probably was founded by Septimius Severus, a Roman Emperor of Phoenician Punic blood, lasted until the destruction of Berytus itself by a sequence of earthquakes, tidal wave, and fire in the mid-6th century.
In 608–609 the Persian king Khosrow II pillaged region and reorganized the area again into a new satrapy, excluding only Phoenicia Maritima. Between 622 and 629 the Byzantine emperor Heraclius mounted an offensive and restored the region to his empire. That was the last time in history that the territorial integrity and name of Phoenicia had a politically recognized presence. This success was short-lived; in the 630s Muslim Arabs conquered the east, and the old Phoenician cities offered only token resistance to the invader.
Finally, following is a short verbatim quote from the Ecumenical Council of Sardica for those who misinform that the name Phoenicia was lost, forgotten and never used again, long before the time of Christ (T. Kjeilen LexicOrient's Encyclopedia of the Orient writes "64 BC: Phoenicia becomes part of the Roman province of Syria, and the name Phoenicia is no longer used." ) while Phoenicia continued to be for another 700 years.
The Ecumenical Council of Sardica, 343 to 344 A.D.Arab
34. "We, the holy synod met in Sardica from different provinces of the East, namely, Thebais, Egypt, Palestine, Arabia, Phoenicia, Coele Syria, Mesopotamia, Cilicia, Cappadocia, Pontus, Paphlagonia, Galatia, Bithynia and Hellespont, from Asia, namely, the two provinces of Phrygia, Pisidia, the islands of the Cyclades, Pamphylia, Caria, Lydia, from Europe, namely, Thrace, Haemimontus, Moesia, and the two provinces of Pannonia, have set forth this creed. "We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Creator and Maker of all things, from whom all fatherhood in heaven and earth is named: "And we believe in His Only-begotten Son our Lord Jesus Christ, who before all ages was begotten of the Father, God of God, Light of Light, through whom were made all things which are in heaven and earth, visible and invisible: who is the Word and Wisdom and Might and Life and true Light: and who in the last days for our sake was incarnate, and Was born of the holy Virgin, who was crucified and dead and buried, And rose from the dead on the third day, And was received into heaven, And sitteth on the right hand of the Father, And shall come to judge the quick and the dead and to give to every man according to his works: Whose kingdom remaineth without end for ever and ever. For He sitteth on the right hand of the Father not only in this age, but also in the age to come. "We believe also in the Holy Ghost, that is, the Paraclete, whom according to His promise He sent to His apostles after His return into the heavens to teach them and to bring all things to their remembrance, through whom also the souls of them that believe sincerely in Him are sanctified. "But those who say that the Son of God is sprung from things non-existent or from another substance and not from God, and that there was a time or age when He was not, the holy Catholic Church holds them as aliens. Likewise also those who say that there are three Gods, or that Christ is not God and that before the ages He was neither Christ nor Son of God, or that He Himself is the Father and the Son and the Holy Ghost, or that the Son is incapable of birth; or that the Father begat the Son without purpose or will: the holy Catholic Church anathematizes."
Beginning with the Arab Muslim occupation in the 7th century, the Arabs typically considered the country merely an undifferentiated part of Bilad ash-Sham which eventually translated into Greater Syria. During that period the confusion over the name received its most devastating blow. What was across the ages a mish-mash of kingdoms, ethnic groups, regions and territories now became an artificial entity that spread across various races and regions to include everything that bordering the Byzantine dominions in Asia Minor in the north to Arabia in the South.
Seljuk OttomanTurk
Under the Ottoman Turkish occupation, the "confusion" was reinforced with the new hegemony that subdivided the region into less ethnically or geographically coherent regions, separating cities into quasi-city states again. Consequently, Ottoman Turkish excellence at lack of organization and mismanagement aggravated the blunders of previous invaders with a political jigsaw that pitted ethnic groups against each other and left the region a much sicker entity than before. That was a reflection of the sick state of the Ottoman empire around the Mediterranean.
Languages
The mix of races that inhabited the eastern Mediterranean embraced various religions and spoke different languages depending on the lingua franca of the ages. With the advent of Christ, most embraced Christianity after paganism and spoke Aramaic until about the seventh century, when Arab invasion forced the Arabic language to become the vernacular tongue of the country. Aramaic, however, held its ground for a considerable time and traces of it are still to be found in the spoken languages (as opposed to classical Arabic) of the peoples of the region. Further, Aramaic survives in the liturgy of the Syriac, Chaldean, Assyrian and Maronite Churches, as well as in some villages the most notable of which is Maalula. The latter is Western Aramaic which is the language used by Christ.In 527 A.D., the Melkites translated the Greek scriptures and other writings into their local Aramaic dialect — Western Aramaic — which the people of the area were still speaking in the 6th century. In fact, even later in 969 A.D. when Antioch became a centre for the Melkite Christians, Aramaic continued to be their language.References:
- Burckhardt, Travels in Syria and the Holy Land (1822), 1-309.
- Wortabet, The Syrians (London, 1896).
- Chesnet, Euphrates Expedition, (London, 1838).
- Ritter, Erkunden von Asien, XVII, pts. 1 and 2 (Berlin, 1854-65).
- Von Kremer, Mittelsyrien und Damascus (Vienna, 1853).
- Burton and Drake, Unexplored Syria (London, 1852).
- Reclus, Nouv. géog. univers. d'Asie Antérieure (1884).
- Porter, Five Years in Damascus (London, 1855).
- Blunt, Bedouins of the Euphrates (London, 1870).
- de Vogue, Syrie Centrale (Paris, 1865-77).
- Idem, Syrie, Palestine, Mont Athos (Paris, 1879).
- Sachau, Reise in Syrien u. Mesopotamien (Leipzig, 1883).
- Miller, Alone through Syria (London, 1891).
- Charmes, Voyage en Syrie (Paris, 1891).
- Lady Burton, Inner Life of Syria (London, 1875).
- Post, Flora of Syria, Palestine, and Sinai (Beirut, 1896).
- Humann and Puckstein, Reisen in Nord-Syrien (1890).
- Post, Essays on the Sects and Nationalities of Syria, etc. (London, 1890).
- Goodrich-Freer, In a Syrian Saddle (London, 1905).
- Bell, The Desert and the Sown (London, 1907).
- Lortet, La Syrie d'aujord'hui (Paris, 1884).
- Curtis, To-day in Syria and Palestine (New York, 1903).
- Libby and Hoskins, The Jordan Valley and Petra (New York, 1905).
- Inchbold, Under the Syrian Sun (Philadelphia, 1907).
- Kelman and Thomas, From Damascus to Palmyra (London, 1908).
- Margoliouth, Cairo, Jerusalem, and Damascus (London, 1907).
- Quinet, Syrie, Lebon, et Palestine (Paris, 1896).
- Baedeker, Palestine and Syria (Leipsic, 1906).
- Dupont, Cours Géographique dé l'Empire Ottoman (Paris, 1907).
- G. Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land (London, 1900).
- The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume XIV, 1909
- Hefele, Hist. Councils. Vol. II., pp. 172 et seqq.
http://phoenicia.org/syria.html
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