MUTUAL RESPECT AND ADMIRATION: idle no more - Major General Sir Isaac Brock and Chief Tecumseh. Together, British troops, First Nations, and Canadian volunteers defeated an American invasion in 1812-14
SIDEBAR - Queen Victoria adored her Red Children..... and America knew it... and the Empire
forums.canadiancontent.net/.../66250-could-british-burial-ground-sioux....
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Aug 16, 2007 - 2 posts - 2 authors
Chief Red Shirt
of the tribe became a favourite with Queen Victoria, who ... Manypeople in
Salford today could be the descendants of some of these ... Year, demanded
several performances and adored the
chief Red Shirt.
--------------Canada's First People the First to sign up for war conflicts.... and 2 often the first to die....
Canadian youngfolks are finally recognizing the privilege of being Canadian and our enormous cultural history and the incredible ties of our First Nations, Metis and Inuit peoples- IT'S TIME WE THANK THEM.... and bring our love and pride of our First Peoples and their enormous contributions to our Canada- and Canada's war of 1812 is truly the highlight of Canada's First Nations and Canada Militia- who were brilliant and determined NOT TO BECOME America...
- one of the very huge differences in Canada and USA is our cultural significance of our First Peoples whereby, America is so integrated into the black slave culture- and rarely gives credence to their First Peoples..... Charles Dickens son Frances served the the first (what is now Royal Canadian Mounted Police) in 1834 onwards and his stories on the huge difference in attitutde and behaviour of Queen Victoria's reign of Canada and that of the United States- America.... towards the First Peoples of America- ..... the war of 1812 is VERY significant.... and it's sad that political games can't step back and reflect and honour- our Canada and magnificant historical significance of the people of the times.
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_ Brock died in battle on Oct. 13, 1812, and he was wearing the sash Tecumseh gave him- BATTLE Image of the death of General Brock at the Battle of Queenston Heights by John David Kelly - Push_on_brave_York_volunteers
Tecumseh’s Ghost
By Allan R. Gregg — Oct 5 2013
200 years ago today, in what is now called Moraviantown, Ontario, the great Shawnee warrior, Tecumseh was killed defending Canada against invading American troops during the War of 1812. After waging a fearsome battle with the encroaching American militia for over five years, Tecumseh had struck terror in the hearts of American settlers, soldiers and commanders alike. His alliance with the British General, Isaac Brock, and their victory at Detroit, decisively shifted the early momentum in the War to Canada’s favour. No longer could the Americans boast that victory would be (as Thomas Jefferson promised then President James Madison) “a mere matter of marching.” Indeed, it can be said that it was Tecumseh – as much as any other single individual – who saved Canada in the War of 1812.
- the story
Growing up in Canada’s public school system, I was never taught this. Attending a PhD program with a minor in Canadian history, I never learned this. More recently, my son took a 4th year university course in Canadian Native history where his syllabus consisted of three novels and no definitive textbook on his chosen subject. Needless to say, he knew nothing about Tecumseh’s defining role in a war that’s been described as the foundation of Canada’s national identity.
Oddly, it was my casual reading of American history that introduced me to Tecumseh. He was a compelling figure and the more I learned about him, the more fascinating he became. How could I have missed his remarkable story?
Yet it is not like we never heard of Tecumseh – or more correctly, the name Tecumseh. My wife attended Tecumseh Public School in Scarborough, Ontario (and basically, knew nothing of his role in Canadian history). There is a town of Tecumseh in Ontario (in fact two – New Tecumseh and plain old Tecumseh) and one in Saskatchewan. There are Tecumseh Streets in Ottawa, Niagara, Winnipeg and Toronto. Naval Academies, nuclear submarines, University departments of Aboriginal Studies are named after him. In fact, if you care to look, Tecumseh seems to be everywhere. But for most of us though, Tecumseh is a Mall, or a Tae-kwon-do studio or a boat motor or even an uber modern Loft in the trendy King West neighbourhood of Toronto.
Since I first encountered Tecumseh, and perhaps in the spirit of the 200th anniversary of the War of 1812, there has been modest redemption made to his historical importance to Canada. Added to his desultory and remote memorial, erected in 1963 near where he was slain, and to the sad plaque on a rock in Upper Canada Village, near Morrisburg,Ontario, (where he never set foot), Tecumseh has now been commemorated on a Canadian quarter and on his own stamp, as well as one shared with Sir Isaac Brock. The noted academic and activist, James Laxer, has published a very credible account of the War of 1812 that prominently features Tecumseh’s central role in the defense of Canada.
But in this orgy of celebration of the War of 1812, it strikes me that his true legacy has been badly (and perhaps, conveniently) miscast. Far from being ignored, he is now being appropriated by white society and cast as a “good Indian” – brave, heroic, co-operative, and at the ready to do the bidding of his British brethren. He is being placed aside Issac Brock, and the Canadian militia as the great defenders of Canada. His historical role has been reduced to Laura Secord with a feather.
A more thorough reading of Tecumseh’s life and influence – not just in the War of 1812 but much more broadly in setting a pattern of aboriginal and non-aboriginal discord over the last two centuries – tells a very different story. While he was undoubtedly brave and heroic, he was anything but compromising or in the thrall of British objectives. He had been present at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1795 when the British closed the doors of Fort Miami on defeated Natives seeking refuge and was under no illusions about the British indifference to the Indians’ conflict with the Americans. He was fierce and determined to take back the land in the Ohio Valley that Americans had taken from his people and cared little for the white man, let alone Canada. To the contrary, his contact with the British and Americans alike led him to conclude that Indians and Whites “were bestowed with different characteristics, beliefs and modes of existence” and thus were meant to be separate and live apart. (Sugden p.118)
Tecumseh’s true historical significance is derived from much more than his feats on the battlefield in the War of 1812. It was his statesmanship, diplomacy and charisma that convinced and motivated Indian braves throughout the length and breadth of the North American frontier to put aside their tribal differences and loyalties, and join a pan-Indian Confederacy to take back the land that had been stolen from them through dozens of unscrupulous treaties. He also brandished a powerful vision and philosophy that combined spiritualism with militarism which still reverberates in the protests of modern day Aboriginal leaders and the Idle No More movement.
More than this, what he represented also ignited the intense fear and subsequent dehumanizing of the Indian by the white man that lurks at the root of Canadian attitudes today. It was his ideas, as much as his tomahawk and scalping knife that made him an inspiration to Indians and dangerous in the extreme to non-Indians.
FACTS ON TECUMSEH- BROCK WORSHIPPED HIM.. AND BROCK WAS WEARING TECUMSEH'S SASH WHEN HE WAS KILLED
While few Canadians know anything about Tecumseh, in his time, he was one of the most famous and feared, men alive – and that legacy would endure for decades after his death. Immediately after the War of 1812, the British built and named a schooner after him. The 1820s were marked by songs, poems and paeans to Tecumseh, honouring his bravery and heroic demise. William Tecumseh Sherman, the hero of the Civil War half a century later, was named after him. Robert Johnson, Martin Van Buren’s Vice-President, ran his campaign in 1836 on the admittedly amateurish slogan, “Rumsey, dumpsey, rumsey, dumpsey … Colonel Johnson killed Tecumseh.” (He claimed to have shot the Shawnee leader in Southern Ontario 23 years before). Three future Presidents – Andrew Jackson, William Harrison and Zachary Taylor– and a Presidential candidate – Winfield Scott -would launch their political careers based on the reputations they had gained by fighting Tecumseh and his allies.
No authenticated portrait of the great warrior exists. Because he spoke no English and did not write, there are only secondhand accounts of his words and deeds. But from what we know, Tecumseh was a remarkable specimen. He was routinely described in diaries as “one of the finest looking men I ever saw” or “one of the most finished forms I ever met” (Sugden p. 5). The great defender of Canada, Sir Isaac Brock, referred to him as, “The Wellington of the Indians,” and declared that “a more sagacious and gallant warrior does not, I believe exist.” (Berton p166). John Richardson, a teenaged militia volunteer who claimed to have encountered Tecumseh during the War of 1812, and went on to become one of Canada’s first novelists, offered a more fulsome description:
“Habited in a close leather dress, his athletic portions were admirably delineated, while a large plume of ostrich feathers, by which he was generally distinguished, overshadowing his brow, and contrasting with the darkness of his complexion and the brilliance of his black and piercing eyes, gave a singularly wild and terrific expression to his features. It was evident that he could be terrible.” (Sugden p. 358)
By all accounts, he was eloquent, fearless and thoughtful … and his entire life had been marked by war with the Americans. Between 1774, (when he was 6 years old), and 1784, his village was attacked five times. His father was killed at the Battle of Point Pleasant in 1776 and his older brother died on the Tennessee frontier around 1788. Naturally, he had little love for the “Long Knives”.
But his hatred was not just reserved for the Americans’ battlefield slaughter; it extended to their relentless acquisition of Native land in the period between 1794 and 1809 and even to the Indian Chiefs, whom he viewed as complicit in its surrender.
Tecumseh’s brother, the so-called Prophet, awoke the Indian indignation at what was happening to their homes and way of life. The Prophet gave his fellow Indians reason to believe that they could resist American encroachment on their lands and offered a vision that revived Native spiritualism. Calling for the rejection of alcohol and a return to tradition, he preached about the unity of the land with mankind and contended that no single tribe had the right to cede territory without the consent of all.
In 1808 the brothers decide to give physical shape to this philosophy and established Prophetstown, where the Tippecanoe River meets the Wabash in what is now Indiana. Almost immediately Indians throughout North America began to gather there to return to their spiritual roots, embrace this way of life once more and ready for battle when the time was right.
Tecumseh came to embody the Prophet’s philosophy and insisted that, “…instead of each Indian group or tribe possessing an exclusive right to a territory…the land must be regarded as common property for all Indian people, and it could only be sold with the consent of all Indian people.” (Sugden p. 44) The basis for his position was Tecumseh’s fundamental belief in the unity of the land with the Indian people. He claimed, “No tribe has the right to sell (land) even to each other, much less strangers … Sell a country? Why not sell the air, the great sea as well as the earth?” (Owens p. 18). Quite simply, the land was, “a dish with one spoon.” (Sugden p.45) To enforce this principle, Tecumseh made it clear that he was prepared, “…to destroy village Chiefs by whom mischief is done. It is they who sell our lands to Americans. Our object is to let all our affairs be transacted by warriors.” (Sugden p. 189). His message was unambiguous and threatening … if the Chiefs who were ceding Indian land were not prepared to get in line, he would overthrow them, as well as the Americans, by forming a new pan-North American warrior nation.
He then began the first of what would be many journeys across the length and breadth of Central and South Eastern United States organizing fellow Natives to join his cause. When Chiefs resisted his entreaties, he appealed directly to the young braves to take up arms and push the Americans out of Indian lands.
On one of these recruiting missions, while Tecumseh was in Georgia and Florida, William Harrison, the governor of Indiana and the man tasked with expanding the American frontier, took advantage of his absence and marched on Prophetstown. Ignoring his brother’s instructions to avoid engagement with the Americans, the Prophet ordered an attack and was routed by Harrison’s forces. (The battle is later immortalized in one of the most famous campaign slogans in US electoral history – “Tippecanoe and Tyler too” – which propels Harrison to the White House in 1840). Tecumseh returned to his razed and smoldering village, resolved to take his battle to an entirely new level.
Meanwhile, half a world away, Napoleon was marching his troops across Europe towards Russia. U.S. President James Madison, who began his term by seeking neutrality in the British-French war, was now being ridiculed as a weakling and “whiffling Jemmy” by a new generation of “War Hawks” in Congress who were trying to rekindle the revolutionary zeal of the Founding Fathers.
This would not be the last time that the US would construct a somewhat flimsy rationale for going to war, but faced with internal revolt and the prospect of losing the upcoming Presidential election, Madison opportunistically declared war on Britain in June 1812.
With equal opportunism – and working on the assumption that the enemy of my enemy is, if not my friend, at least a potential ally – Tecumseh recognized that Madison’s declaration might give him the leverage he needed to beat back the Americans. He headed to Fort Malden in Amherstburg, Ontario to meet with the Canadian Superintendent of Indian Affairs, Matthew Elliot. But while he negotiated an alliance with the British against the Americans, he had little interest in helping to defend Canada, but instead was keenly intent on using the British to drive the Americans out of his home in the Ohio Valley.
If the purpose of the War of 182 was to “invade and take over Canada” then capturing the populous Eastern and Central fronts, which housed the Capitals of Upper and Lower Canada, were surely the most strategically important targets. But this is not what happened. Instead, the American focused on Tecumseh’s turf and the Western Front.
It quickly became apparent that beyond the internal politics behind the decision to go to war, the real goal of the conflict was to subdue Tecumseh’s forces and drive the Indian and British presence out of the Ohio Valley. Madison and his cabinet understood that a war against the Indians was far more popular – and winnable – than a conflict over some vague concept of maritime rights. So the War of 1812 began not so much as a war between Canada and the United States, but a war between Tecumseh and the Americans.
The commander of the Western front, William Hull approached Detroit and prepared his assault into Canada, but his men refused to cross the border and fight on foreign soil, leaving Hull in a bit of a quandary. Isaac Brock, the Major General overseeing the forces of Upper Canada, and the first to understand that the key to Canada’s defense would rest with the Indians, polled his own officers who expressed similar reluctance.
Tecumseh took it upon himself to brow beat, cajole, inspire and ultimately, convince the British to attack. But before they did, Brock wisely engaged in a bit of psychological warfare. In a letter to Hull he described the real threat facing the Americans:
“It is far from my intention to join in a war of extermination, but you must be aware that the numerous body of Indians who have attached themselves to my troops will be beyond my control the moment the contest commences.” (Berton p. 171)
Brock’s message to Hull was far from subtle – it is hard not to know what ‘war of extermination’ means, especially in light of Tecumseh’s well-known reputation for his take-no-prisoners ferocity.
Canadian novelist, John Richard recorded the terrifying scene that Hull faced on the eve of the Battle of Detroit.
“(B)odies stained and painted in the most frightening manner for the occasion …some painted white, some black, others half black and half red … all with their hair plastered in such a way as to resemble the bristling quills of a porcupine, with no other covering than a cloth around their loins, yet armed to the teeth with rifles, tomahawks, war-clubs, spears, bows, arrows and scalping knives. Uttering no sound, intent only on reaching the enemy unperceived, they might have passed for the spectres of those wilds, the ruthless demons which War had unchained for the punishment and oppression of man.” (Berton p. 159-60)
When the battle finally began, it was over without a shot being fired. Just the sight of Tecumseh and his braves, outfitted for slaughter, left the American forces in a state of awestruck panic. A terrified General Hull, described as being rendered “catatonic” at the sight, surrendered without a fight. (Berton p.175)
This encounter set the tone for the following year. By then, it was apparent to the British that the real value of the Indians was not just to fight, but to terrify. (Berton p.216)
While much of our understanding of the War of 1812 focuses on our own border, in the south, a very different kind of war was taking place. As charismatic, persuasive and commanding as he was, not all Indians fell under Tecumseh’s sway. His message posed a direct threat to many Chiefs who had benefited, at least for the present, from the sale of their lands and through an alliance with the Americans. The Creeks in particular were divided as young Tecumseh supporters splinter off to form the Red Sticks and civil war broke out between the two factions. Another tribe that Tecumseh had wooed, the Seminoles, joined the Spanish and escaped Black slaves and confronted American filibusters who were threatening to seize Florida. Further North, Indian tribes became emboldened by news of Tecumseh’s victories and began confrontations with settlers that spread news of bloody massacres. Pierre Berton described the carnage that was taking place in this way – “hearts cut out and eaten raw, throats slit, torture and clubbing to death of white men who are forced to run the gauntlet”. (Berton 191-7)
For the Americans, it suddenly seemed that their simple border skirmish was spreading throughout the length and breadth of their much-coveted frontier. Again their enemy was not so much the British, but the Indians, and Tecumseh’s fingerprints were on every conflict.
With his humiliating surrender, Hull was replaced by the despised William Harrison. His arrival in the Niagara area coincided with the first major setback for the British – the death of Isaac Brock in October, 1812. While the British suffered few casualties other than Brock in the Battle of Queenston (and the Americans were ultimately forced to surrender because their terrified militiamen, once again, refused to cross the river to engage the Indians), Tecumseh lost the one ally who fully understood his importance to the defense of Canada.
Notwithstanding this development and the muscular forces the US were amassing on the Western front, Tecumseh and his allies continued to wreak havoc on the Americans throughout the first part of 1813. Massacres occurred repeatedly throughout what are now Ohio, Indiana and Illinois — in Raisin River in January, at Fort Meigs in May and Fort Mims in August. As reports of slaughter and atrocities grew, they became the source of outrage among previously disinterested American citizens. In response, the US Government unleashed the ferocious Indian hater, Andrew Jackson, to subdue the Creeks and Seminoles in the South.
If Tecumseh’s memories of the Battle of Falling Timbers caused him to doubt the dependability of the British to serve Indian interests, his apprehension was significantly heightened by Brock’s replacement, Henry Proctor.
Proctor and Tecumseh locked horns many times since Brock’s death. Continuing a pattern that had been apparent since the start of the War, the British had proved reluctant to push back the growing American forces and lay claim to the territory that was Tecumseh’s home. Their differences were fundamental – Proctor wanted to defend Canada; Tecumseh wanted to retake the Ohio Valley. As Proctor retreated further into the Thames Valley of the Niagara peninsula it was clear to Tecumseh that he is going in the wrong direction and the Shawnee warrior was forced to confront Proctor. Fearing that he will lose the support of the Indians, Proctor promised Tecumseh that they will stand and fight the American invaders at the Lower Thames (now Chatham, Ontario). But when Tecumseh and his 1,200 warriors arrived, they find that the area had not been fortified and Proctor has retreated even further inland to Moraviantown. Convinced that their British allies were once again abandoning them, half of Tecumseh’s warriors simply turn back, leaving him to forge ahead with a badly diminished force. Meanwhile Harrison crossed into Canada and was advancing rapidly with 5,000 American troops.
When Tecumseh reached Moraviantown, Harrison’s army was in sight and Proctor finally agreed to take a stand and fight. Almost immediately however, the British line broke and they began to surrender. Sensing a rout, Proctor turned on his heels and rode away, leaving Tecumseh and his warriors to carry the battle alone.
The specifics of what happened next in the Battle of Moraviantown are murky. History is unclear about what happened to Tecumseh’s body but it is beyond dispute that he was killed that day and that his surviving braves dispersed and retreated into the swampy grass of the Thames Valley. For his role, Henry Proctor was later returned to England to face court martial where he was stripped of his rank and died nine years later.
After Tecumseh’s death, the War of 1812 continued to rage on. The Americans never captured and held any territory of significance in Canada but they did succeed in breaking through the Central front and laying siege to Fort York (now Toronto). The British spectacularly invaded Washington, DC and burned down the White House, forcing Madison and his Cabinet to flee the new capital. Andrew Jackson cemented his hero’s status by slaughtering 557 of Tecumseh’s Red Stick warriors at Horseshoe Bend in what is now central Alabama and then went on to command one of the more lopsided victories in military history, the Battle of New Orleans — after the war was officially declared over.
Notwithstanding the many ongoing conflicts, by 1814, peace talks were the most critical component of the US government’s strategy. Even though Napoleon was now in full retreat and the British were able to re-dedicate their war machine to the North American continent, their assessment of the situation was that the “war was unlikely to be lost but impossible to win.” (Zuehle, p 315) So the two warring factions sent their respective representatives to neutral ground in Ghent, Belgium to negotiate a peace treaty.
To the great surprise of the American delegation, the rights and residency of the Indians once again resurfaced as the centre piece of not just the waging of war, but now to the making of peace. In fact, the British made it clear that the “sine qua non” of any cessation of hostilities was that the Americans agree to an Indian Territory and buffer zone, “as a useful and permanent barrier between both parties, rendering British, United Sates and Indians as peaceful neighbours.” (Zuehle, p.298) The American’s were flabbergasted. Basically, the British were demanding that they give up what is now Michigan, Wisconsin, Illinois, 4/5ths of Indiana and 1/3rd of Ohio to become dedicated Indian Territory. Basically, this was the boundary that had existed before the Treaty of Fort Wayne that set off Tecumseh’s campaign 5 years earlier. It was as if Shawnee warrior himself was somehow engineering the terms of peace from the grave.
For the shocked Americans, this was a non-starter. Agreeing to the central British demand would mean abandoning 100,000 US citizens, curtailing any ambition for further western expansion and potentially strengthening the bond between the British and the troublesome Indians. Lead negotiator, (and another future American President), John Quincy Adams countered that agreeing to these terms would amount to “the surrender of national independence.”
In the end, the armistice and Treaty of Ghent resulted in no territory exchanging hands. What had begun for the British negotiators as their “sine qua non” of peace was abandoned. As the negotiations went back and forth, the British realized that a possible end to hostilities meant that they no longer needed their Indian allies to defend the borders of their colony. At the same time, with the death of Tecumseh, it was equally clear to the Americans that the Indians would never again pose the same kind of substantive military threat. In short, absent any need for, or fear of the Indians, both sides concluded that their interests were of little concern. As a result, the Indians were only granted “all the possessions, rights and privileges which they may have enjoyed or been entitled to in 1811.” In other words, the efforts of Tecumseh’s confederacy, his death and his defense of Canada were for naught. While both the British and the Americans would declare victory, it was clear that the real losers of the War of 1812 were the Indians.
But the end of the War didn’t mean that the Americans were finished with the Indians. The next year, the Cherokees, who had sided with the Americans in subduing the Tecumseh-inspired Creek War, were forced to sell the last of their land in South Carolina. Two years later, the last of Tecumseh’s Red Sticks were hunted down and killed in the Florida swamps as Jackson waged the first Seminole War. In 1822, in direct defiance of a Supreme Court ruling, the Georgia legislature began efforts to remove all Indian tribes from its territory. The United States Congress subsequently made Georgia’s initiative a nation-wide initiative and passed the Indian Removal Act. In the last act of resistance to removal, now-President Andrew Jackson finished what he started and waged the second Creek and Seminole Wars. By 1838, The Indians were fully defeated, and that year were marched out of the South on the ‘Trail of Tears’ to Oklahoma.
In Canada, the Indians fared better … but only until Confederation, when the Government became sufficiently organized to follow America’s lead.
Before 1867, the colonial government had signed numerous, sometimes vague or even blank treaties with Canada’s Aboriginals. The first of these were largely “Peace and Friendship” treaties, designed to forge political alliances with the Indians and gain their assistance in trade or conflicts with the French. These documents rarely involved the transfer of land or promises of annuities. Throughout the last decades of the 18th century and the first half of the 19th, most treaties arose to accommodate growing British settlement along Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence, and involved small one-time payments that did not forcibly relocate the Indians off the treaty land.
The discovery of minerals along the shores of Lakes Superior and Huron however, changed the game entirely. The Robinson Treaties in 1850, involving massive transfers of land in relatively unpopulated areas, in exchange for reserves, lump sum payments, annuities and defined hunting and fishing rights in unoccupied Crown lands, became the model for future Aboriginal agreements.
But it was Confederation and the British North America Act that introduced a new set of problems and took the nature of relations between the Indians and the new Government of Canada to a whole different level.
The problem, of course, was that Canada, consisting of the Atlantic provinces, Quebec, Ontario and British Columbia, had a gaping hole in it that extended from Lake Superior to the Rocky Mountains. This was partly solved by the acquisition of Rupertsland from the Hudson Bay Company in 1869 and the introduction of the Manitoba Act the following year. But these efforts to close “the gap” created another issue – what to do with the Metis and Indians who believed that the vast expanse of land between Manitoba and British Columbia belonged to them? Canadian native history provides a sad and definitive answer to that question – confiscate that land, move the Indians to reserves and if they resist, follow the American model and crush the resistance, either by force or through (what we now know was a planned policy of) starvation (Daschuk).
The pace and scope with which the new government pursued this goal however was truly breathtaking. After putting down Manitoba’s Red River rebellion in 1870, the Government of Canada entered into seven numbered treaties in six years that saw one of the largest confiscations of lands in modern history. The entirety of what is now the central and southern Prairie provinces were transferred to the federal government. In fact, even before the railroad, this was Canada’s first act of national enterprise.
Having secured the northern part of the continent, the new Government of Canada saw no need for any further negotiations. But because Macdonald and others also saw nothing worth preserving in Indian culture, they still sought to expunge it. Indian agents and missionaries were dispatched to reservations to manage the affairs and Christianize the “wards of the state.” Ceremonies such as potlatches and the sun dances were outlawed; a pass system was introduced that controlled both entry to and exit from the reserves; and “nations” were broken down into bands, with tribes relocated at will.
After over 20 years of inactivity – and only because of the discovery of gold in the Yukon in 1896 – treaty negotiations began anew. Three years later, Treaty #8 was finalized and ceded parts of Northern British Columbia, Alberta and Saskatchewan and the southern portion of the Northwest Territories. After a short lull of 6 years Treaties #9 and #10 saw Northern Ontario and the rest of Northern Alberta transferred from the Indians to the federal government. The last of the numbered Treaties had to wait almost 15 years but with the discovery of oil in Norman Wells, the government saw the need to acquire the rest of the Northwest Territories and the Yukon. The coup de grace came two years later in 1923 with the Williams Treaties which cleaned up earlier, ambiguous and blank treaties going back to the 1700s and forced the Aboriginals to give up hunting and fishing rights in previously surrendered land – a practice that had been guaranteed in the all the treaties previous to it.
In 6 short years the Government of Canada had secured their nation at the Indian’s expense, and within 50 years, the mopping up was complete. By and large, all of these numbered treaties exist unchanged to this day. Virtually all are being contested in the courts and are subject to land claims disputes and only a handful of new treaties have been successfully negotiated in almost a century.
While they vary in detail, the general thrust of all the treaties is more or less the same. Millions of square miles of what was Indian territory were surrendered to the federal government in exchange for a one-time “present” (of usually around $10-12) for every man, woman and child belonging to the affected band; an additional payoff to the Chief (of around $25) and up to four “subordinates” (in the order of $15); a one-time provision of farm implements and seeds “for the encouragement of the practice of agriculture”; an annual stipend (usually around $1,000 – $1,500) for the purchase of ammunition and twine; the promise to maintain schools on the reserve; (until the Williams Treaties) the right to hunt and fish on the ceded land (provided the government did not have other plans for it, such as mining or the creation of non-aboriginal communities); and the setting aside of “reserves” usually equal to one square mile of land for each family of five.
As an illustration of how anachronistic these still-enforced treaties are, they also provided for an annual payment of $5 for every band member — a ritual that is practiced on reserves to this day.
Not only were these treaties patently one-sided and unfair, the understanding of their purpose and intent, and the obligations of the parties to each other, were as unclear when they were signed as they are contentious today.
At the center of this misunderstanding was the very concept of what constituted “land”. For the non-aboriginals, land was simply property that could be bought, sold and “owned” like any other commodity in a mercantile or capitalistic system. For the aboriginals, land was an extension of the self and the Indian people. As Tecumseh noted, it could no more be sold than the air or sea. The notion that land could be “surrendered” therefore, was completely inimical to their very understanding of what was at issue. To the aboriginals, they were not selling the land but merely sharing and letting the crown use it.
For the Government, the treaties also represented a straightforward legal transaction – a buy-sell arrangement – where land was purchased in exchange for cash and services. For the Aboriginals, the documents simply outlined relations between two peoples. So for example, Treaty #6 (for the first time) provided the Plain and Wood Creek Indians who signed it with a guarantee that the Indian Agent would keep a medicine chest in his residence. To the legalistic European mind the meaning of this provision was literal – the Indian agent was given a physical medicine chest and their obligations were finished. For the Indians, the “medicine chest” was metaphorical – a guarantee of health care for all time.
At an entirely other level of incomprehension, each party also had (and has) a completely different interpretation of the status of the other and who they were dealing with. The Aboriginals saw themselves as sovereign and the negotiations as between two separate “nations”. The federal government paid (and continues to pay) lip service to this notion, but their behaviour makes it apparent that they viewed this as little more than a quaint conceit and in reality, expected the First Nations to cede to the authority and dominance of “the crown”.
It is this gaping chasm between how the First Nations’ leadership and the federal government view each other’s respective obligations, rights and status that has led to the failure to modernize these treaties. It is also at the heart of our ongoing bitter and acrimonious relations, destined to stay in this sordid state of affairs until we come to acknowledge and accept these differences.
When we puzzle at how it is possible for Canadians – who view ourselves, above all else, as tolerant, reasonable and a “good people” – to look on the plight of Canada’s indigenous peoples with such indifference, we would be well advised to trace the deeply rooted fear and misunderstanding Tecumseh triggered towards Indians in his time. His uncompromising fierceness – both physically and intellectually – was a direct threat to the North American ambition and made him too dangerous to live. And to eliminate the Indian, it became necessary to demonize and dehumanize the Indian. In this regard, Tecumseh can be seen a metaphor for all Indians. The threat he posed and the danger he represented was inherited by all Aboriginals at the time and arguably, all who came after.
The significance of Tecumseh in our history cannot be underestimated, yet for most of the last 200 years, his power and the influence he wielded over Indian thought has not been recognized as a significant part of our national story. Perhaps more importantly, our failure to acknowledge the central role indigenous people played in shaping our history – and the distorted picture of that role, when it is offered – plays out in aboriginal and non-aboriginal affairs to this day.
As with the tale of Tecumseh, these modern relations have been marked by a repeated pattern – - of misunderstanding, betrayal and ignoring.
While our record is far from unblemished, Canadians did not massacre Indians on anywhere near the same scale as the Americans. But we did “remove” them in much the same way, relocating them to isolated and remote areas, relegating them to the status of “the other” and hiding them out of sight from our conscience. But it will be impossible to ignore them for much longer, as indigenous people are now the fastest growing demographic in Canadian society. Not only do we have a moral responsibility to come to grips with what has become a stain on Canada’s international reputation, but given the recognition of aboriginal rights in the Canadian Charter and in a series of recent court rulings, failure to do so will invariably mean that economic and resource development will come to a grinding halt.
Tecumseh believed that his people and whites were essentially different. He was and is right in this regard. The temperament, world vision, spiritualism and especially the history of aboriginal and non-aboriginal Canadians are worlds apart. Nothing in our history or experience would provide non-aboriginals with a frame of reference to understand why anyone would chose to live a 16th century and isolated lifestyle in our interconnected digital world; or why individual ownership of property would be contentious or divisive; or why preserving and protecting “the land” would take priority over exploiting and exhausting our resources; or why spiritualism, ceremony or respect could be more valued than materialism, competition and “winning”. And we lack this perspective not just because our history does not include the surrender of our property, or the removal from our homes or residential schools or the stigma of systematic second class citizenship … in sum, of being misunderstood, betrayed and ignored for 200 years. We lack this understanding because we have never cared enough to acknowledge these differences, learn their importance and accept their permanence.
On this, the 200 anniversary of Tecumseh’s death, if we really want to honour his contribution to saving Canada perhaps it is time to end this pattern and set out to mend the wounds of the past… or forever be haunted by his ghost.
http://www.nationalnewswatch.com/2013/10/05/tecumsehs-ghost/#.UlLxSFqEi1s
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Canadian students are becoming much more interested in Canada and our history.... ie the War of 1812 and the huge part Canadian Militia and above all First Nations heroes played - the First Nations knew they had to win our Canada.... and created the start of Confederation..... regardless of political identity- Canada and our history and our youth must come above all else..,.. wonderful for educators... students.... and Canada and our National Identity ...
Canada National Aboriginals Monument- 2013 now has DECODING ART
War of 1812 Bicentennial Highlights Unsung Aboriginal Heroes in Canada’s Creation
By ICTMN StaffJune 16, 2012
Though not much remembered south of the 49th Parallel, the War of 1812, seminal in the creation of Canada, was marked by alliances between aboriginals and the British. In fact, there are those who say that First Nations were integral to British victory and thus the very existence of Canada.
This weekend officially begins three years of bicentennial celebrations of the conflict in Canada, kicked off with a major ceremony in Niagara-on-the-Lake, where the Battle of Queenston was fought. Attended by Governor General David Johnston, the country’s commander in chief and the Crown’s representative in Canada, the events will also honor the role that aboriginals played in the war, a contribution that generally has been left out of history books and curricula.
"Ontario, and probably a good part of the rest of present day Canada, would now be part of the United States were it not for the native warriors who overwhelmingly came to the defense of the British Crown in the first year of the War of 1812–1814," writes James Bartleman, Chippewas of Rama First Nation and a sixth-generation descendant of an 1812 warrior, in The Globe and Mail.
"When Congress declared war on Britain on June 18, 1812, former president Thomas Jefferson, speaking from his estate at Monticello in Virginia, said ‘the acquisition of Canada this year, as far as the neighborhood of Quebec, will be a mere matter of marching.’ Henry Clay, speaker of the House of Representatives, claimed the conquest of Canada could be handled by the militia of Kentucky without any other help."
With Britain enmeshed in fighting against Napoleon, Bartleman points out, it was left virtually to the First Nations of the area to defend what would become Canada. For many key battles, the aboriginals, fighting alongside sparse British troops, were instrumental in driving back the American invaders. Most notable on that front was the memorable battle led by the great Shawnee Chief Tecumseh, who headed forces so formidable that they frightened the Americans into submission by preying on their fear of scalping.
Some thanks the aboriginals got, though: The ensuing decades brought the residential schools era, the Indian Act and the reserve system as Canada’s thirst for industrial development came to the fore. And that betrayal started at the tail end of the war.
"On April 27, 1813, Ojibwa and Mississauga sharpshooters were left to stop the landing of more than a thousand American soldiers at the Battle of York as the British troops conducted a strategic retreat out of the capital of Upper Canada," Bartleman writes. "On October 5, 1813, British troops under Major-General Henry Proctor fled the scene of battle at Moraviantown (the Battle of the Thames), leaving behind Tecumseh to be killed and his men to be mauled and eliminated as a fighting force."
Aboriginals are busy highlighting their role in the conflict and their contribution to Canada’s formation as a nation, both to get their contributions recognized and to draw continued attention to Canada’s origins as a cooperative venture that was supposed to take the best of what each side, aboriginal and European, had to offer, rather than subjugate one set of parties.
The Dakota Whitecap nation in Saskatchewan stands out when it comes to what was then the western frontier. They sent a few hundred fighters, headed by Scottish fur trader Robert Dickson (known as the Red-Haired Man in aboriginal circles), to help capture American installations on Mackinac Island on the western end of Lake Huron, Postmedia News reported. It was the war’s first victory.
The Dakota Sioux still know the War of 1812 as Pahinshashawacikiya, "When The Red Head Begged for Our Help," Postmedia News said.
"In Western Canada, there’s not really a lot of awareness of the War of 1812," Chief Darcy Bear, leader of Whitecap’s 600-member community, told Postmedia News. "But it’s basically the humble beginnings of our nation. Canada didn’t just happen in 1867—turn on a switch and Canada was there. There were actually relationships prior to that, and the British really relied on their First Nations allies."
Read more:http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2012/06/16/war-of-1812-bicentennial-highlights-unsung-aboriginal-heroes-in-canadas-creation-118826 http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2012/06/16/war-of-1812-bicentennial-highlights-unsung-aboriginal-heroes-in-canadas-creation-118826#ixzz23XPj2etH
... AND..
CANADA WAR 1812- NOVA SCOTIA- Memorial Site- Deadman's Island
Photographs of
Deadman's Island
(actually a peninsula, not an island)
War of 1812
1812 - 1814
Deadmans Island is the burial site of some 450 people from
around the world...prisoners of war...quarantine patients...
refugees...brought to Melville Island to be housed by
the Royal Navy...a considerable number died...
- Debate, Nova Scotia Legislature, 29 April 2004
NOVA SCOTIA: DEADMAN'S ISLAND ELECTRIC SCRAPBOOK
http://ns1763.ca/hfxrm/deadmansnd.html
Photographs of
Deadman's Island
(actually a peninsula, not an island)
War of 1812
1812 – 1814
Deadmans Island is the burial site of some 450 people from
around the world...prisoners of war...quarantine patients...
refugees...brought to Melville Island to be housed by
the Royal Navy...a considerable number died...
— Debate, Nova Scotia Legislature, 29 April 2004
War of 1812
Records Relating to
American Prisoners of War
Records Relating to American Prisoners of War, (1812-1815)
eleven microfilm reels
Special Collections Division, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri —
The records relating to Americans taken prisoner by British forces
during the War of 1812 form a portion of the Admiralty records in the
Public Records Office. The largest group of material is Medical Department:
Registers. This consists of ledgers of information on American
prisoners-of-war for prison ships and depots. The records were generated
in the process of receiving and housing prisoners and monitoring their
passage through the prison system. The ledgers recorded prisoners by
number, name, place of birth, age, and physical attributes. They also
recorded how the prisoners were taken, time and place of capture,
ship from which prisoners were taken, supplies issued, and disposition
of the prisoners. American prisoners were detained in
England (8 locations), Canada (3 locations), Bermuda, New Providence,
Barbadoes, Jamaica, Gibraltar, Malta, and Cape of Good Hope.
and..
cbc.ca
War of 1812 dead honoured in Halifax
Last Updated: Monday, May 31, 2010 | 6:03 PM AT
CBC News
A small ceremony was held Monday in Halifax.(CBC)
On a day when the United States remembered its war dead, Americans and Canadians gathered Monday on the windswept peninsula in Halifax known as Deadman's Island to remember those who fell in the War of 1812.
The act of remembrance was for the estimated 188 American soldiers who died as prisoners of the British army in the War of 1812, and were buried on Deadman's Island.
An informal ceremony has been held every Memorial Day since 2005 when the municipality bought the land and turned it into a park to prevent condominium development on the site.
Anton Smith, the U.S. consul general for the Atlantic provinces, attended the ceremony.
"British military authorities established a concentration camp here in this area, and a number of those who were imprisoned here succumbed," he said.
Britain was at war with the United States in disputes over territory and some of the Americans unfortunate enough to be captured were brought to what would have been a desolate spot on the Northwest Arm, then on the outskirts of the fortress town of Halifax.
"Disease was often a problem in the camps, sanitation was poor. This is an outpost — as we have experienced even today here in late spring — that can be pretty cold, and in those days, it wasn't very well protected," Smith said.
The soldiers who died were buried in the hillside alongside Chesapeake Black Loyalist refugees who died of small pox while in quarantine on nearby Melville Island.
When developers were about to put condominiums on the land, the issue that it was an unmarked burial ground was raised.
Smith said there are a lot of reasons the war dead were forgotten for nearly 200 years.
"Because it was a relatively small concentration camp, that period was very confusing. You had people going south, people going north. It was a period of confusion between our two countries," Smith said.
Smith said he's grateful to Canada and the people of Halifax for helping create the memorial site.
Old war's victims forgotten no longer: Privateers of War of 1812 buried in Halifax
by Colin Nickerson, Boston Globe Staff, 12 May 2000
[another copy of the above item]
and...
The WAR OF 1812 is crucial to Canada and it's time that political cheating national pride of our young Canadians (and by the by...in actuallity... their growing interest and awareness and pride in being Canadian) came before vicious political games..... IT'S ALL ABOUT FIRST NATIONS PEOPLES OF CANADA AND CANADA MILITIA.... and everyday folks.....of Canada and the beginning of our Confederation- Get used to it!... celebrate our First Nations, Inuit and Metis..... of Canada- millions of us do every day.
Heroes of the War of 1812
There were many heroes and heroines of the War of 1812, many unsung. Perhaps Brock, Tecumseh and Secord are the best known but there were others:
•British Regulars ?Major-General Sir Isaac Brock: The Hero of Upper Canada (1769-1812)
Charles-Michel d'Irumberry de Salaberry, Canadian Officer in the British Army, Hero of Chateauguay (1778-1829)
James Prendergast, Unsung Hero of Crysler's Farm (1789-1834)
•First Nations Tecumseh, Shawnee War Chief (1768-1813)
John Norton (Teyoninhokarawen or "The Snipe") Six Nations War Chief (approx. 1765-1831)
John Brant , (Dekarihokenh, Ahyouwaeghs, or Tekarihogen), Mohawk War Chief (1794-1832)
Matthew Elliott, British Indian Department Superintendent, (approx. 1739-1814)
•Women Laura Secord, Heroine of Beaver Dams (1775-1868)
Mary Henry, "A Heroine Not to Be Frightened" (approx. 1770-1830)
•Naval/Maritime Charles Frederick Rolette, Canadian Officer of the Royal Navy (1783-1831)
Joseph Barss, Privateer (1776-1824)
•African CanadianRichard Pierpoint, Black Veteran of three wars, (1744-1838)
•Upper Canadians William Hamilton Merritt, Cavalry officer and Canal Builder (1793-1862)
British Regulars
1. Major-General Sir Isaac Brock: The Hero of Upper Canada (1769-1812)
Major-General Sir Isaac Brock was born in St Peter Port, Guernsey on October 6, 1769. He was a British Army officer who was stationed in Canada in the early 1800s.
His early attempts to prepare the province for war were frustrating, especially in dealing with the Legislative Council in Upper Canada. Although the Council was willing to grant funds to strengthen the militia, they refused the suspension of habeas corpus once the war began. With the arrival of war in 1812, Brock initiated an aggressive campaign even though he was advised by his superiors to remain on the defensive.
Major General Sir Isaac Brock (a hero of the War of 1812 known for his efforts to ensure the preservation of Upper Canada).
Brock's most daring exploit occurred August 16, 1812, when he led a force of regulars and First Nations warriors in the successful capture of Detroit by creating the illusion of a much larger Canadian force with the help of Tecumseh, a leader of the Shawnee, and his warriors. He continued to strengthen Upper Canada after Detroit in preparation for an American assault somewhere on the Niagara frontier. The first major American attack occurred at Queenston Heights on October 13, 1812.
After losing his initial advantage in which the important Redan Battery cannon was captured, he rallied the troops that were present at the bottom of Queenston Heights and prepared to re-capture the Redan Battery position. Brock allegedly turned to his men and said "Take breath boys-you will need it in a few moments."
Brock led the troops himself in an attempt to charge up the Heights where he was singled out by an American marksman and killed instantly. British forces, Canadian militia, and First Nations warriors then rallied and drove back the Americans and forced nearly 1,000 to surrender. Today Brock's story serves as a reminder for all Canadians of his sacrifice at the Battle of Queenston Heights and his efforts that ensured the preservation of Upper Canada.
2. Charles de Salaberry, Canadien Officer in the British Army, Hero of Châteauguay (1778-1829)
Lieutenant Colonel Charles-Michel d'Irumberry de Salaberry was born on November 19, 1778 in Beauport, Québec. He was a French-Canadian of the seigneurial class who served as an officer of the British army in Lower Canada (now Quebec) and raised a unit of light infantry from among his primarily French Canadian compatriots, known as the Canadian Voltigeurs.
In October 1813, Salaberry was summoned to proceed quickly from Châteauguay with his troops, which included French-Canadian militia and Mohawk warriors, to the Châteauguay River in order to fend off the much larger American force that was preparing to attack Montreal in order to cut off the British army in Upper Canada.
Lieutenant Colonel Charles-Michel d'Irumberry de Salaberry (an officer of the British army in Lower Canada who raised a unit of light infantry from among his primarily French Canadian compatriots, known as the Canadian Voltigeurs).
Having foreseen that the Americans would cross the Châteauguay River, Salaberry placed forces, including the Canadian Voltigeurs, along with some Aboriginal forces, to form a blockade, while sending a small number of men across the river. A mile behind the blockade, about 1,400 militiamen, under Lieutenant-Colonel George Richard John Macdonell, were divided among four entrenchments one behind the other.
When the Americans began to approach the blockade, the American General Wade Hampton split his troops and sent about 1,000 men across the Châteauguay, leaving about another 1,000 in reserve at his encampment. The American troops did not manage to surprise Salaberry’s militiamen as he had succeeded in creating the illusion that his force was much stronger than it actually was and discouraged the Americans.
After about four hours of fighting on October 26, 1813, the American general ordered his troops to retreat. The Canadians remained at the blockade, ready to resume combat the following day. But the American general, who had received orders to take up winter quarters in American territory, thought that his superior had called off the attack on Montreal, and he moved his troops back towards the United States. The battle of Châteauguay therefore saved that town from a large-scale attack, with about 1,700 Canadians repelling around 3,000 Americans.
3. James Prendergast, Unsung Hero of Crysler’s Farm, (1789-1834)
James Prendergast was born in County Monaghan in 1789. In 1803, he joined the 100th Regiment of Foot of the British Army and came to Canada with that regiment soon afterwards. James worked his way up the ranks and by 1812 had been promoted to a staff sergeant, the paymaster sergeant for the regiment.
Soon after the War of 1812 broke out, James was stationed with his company on Île aux Noix in the Richelieu River in Lower Canada (Quebec). When two American gunboats, the Eagle and the Growler, which had sailed up the river, threatened the British garrison there, James Prendergast proved that he had courage and initiative. Leading some men of the 100th, he opened fire from the shore. When the American gunboats grounded in a desperate manoeuvre, James was able to capture the crew of one of the boats. For his initiative, he was promoted as Adjutant to the Corps of Canadian Voltigeurs, a French-Canadian regiment incorporated into the British Army.
While serving with the Voltigeurs, Prendergast was active in the Battle of Crysler’s Farm on November 11, 1813, when an outnumbered British force, together with the Canadian Voltigeurs militia and Mohawk warriors, drove off an American army twice the size. During the height of the battle, James led a group of soldiers in a wild charge to capture an American cannon. All but James and one other man were shot down during the charge but they managed to take the gun and then turn it on the Americans to fire into their retreating ranks.
Once again stationed in the Richelieu Valley, Prendergast again distinguished himself. When an American army invaded Lower Canada and besieged a small British force holding a blockhouse at Lacolle Mill, Prendergast rushed with reinforcements to the scene and immediately launched a desperate bayonet charge at the American cannon, carrying on through fearful casualties. The Americans were eventually forced to retreat. His commanding officer said of him: "on all occasions when engaged with the enemy, he has never failed to display the greatest energy and bravery."
After the war and the reduction of the army, James Prendergast was given an appointment as the land agent for the settlement of Clarendon Township in Pontiac County, Lower Canada. During a visit to Quebec City in 1834, he died of cholera. James Prendergast was one of the most active and courageous soldiers of the war of 1812, but his story is largely unsung. Being of humble origins without the patronage of the Upper Classes, a private soldier who had risen in the ranks in an army that was anything but egalitarian, there was no one to sing his praises and launch his name into the history books.
First Nations
4. Tecumseh, Shawnee War Chief, (1768-1813)
Tecumseh was a Shawnee chief born in 1768. He was a Native American leader of the Shawnee and a large tribal confederacy that opposed the United States during the War of 1812. Tecumseh attempted to stop the advance of white settlement into the Old Northwest. Tecumseh believed that Aboriginal peoples must return to their traditional ways, forgetting intertribal rivalries and holding onto land that all Aboriginals held in common.
Tecumseh joined the British against the Americans in the War of 1812. His support for Major-General Sir Isaac Brock at the capture of Detroit was decisive. Before the British approach, Tecumseh's warriors showed themselves in a never-ending line to the Americans. The warriors at the head of the line doubled back to join the end of the line and it appeared to the American General that he was besieged by a massive force of warriors. This manoeuvre convinced the American General to surrender to avoid a massacre after Brock allegedly warned that the large support from Tecumseh's warriors would be beyond his control once a conflict had begun.
Tecumseh (Shawnee War Chief who joined the British against the Americans in the War of 1812).
Legend has it that Tecumseh rode beside Brock when he entered Detroit and that Brock gave him his sash as a mark of respect. Of Tecumseh Brock wrote: "a more sagacious or more gallant Warrior does not I believe exist. He was the admiration of everyone who conversed with him". As a brigadier general, Tecumseh led over 2,000 warriors and fought at the sieges of Fort Meigs, and Fort Stephenson, and his last battle was the Battle of the Thames at Chatham Ontario. There, clothed in traditional Aboriginal deerskin garments, he was killed leading his warriors in a final stand against the invading Americans.
5. John Norton (Teyoninhokarawen or "the Snipe") ca 1765-ca 1831, Six Nations War Chief
John Norton was born in Scotland to a Cherokee father and Scottish mother. As a young man he joined the British Army in Ireland in 1784. His regiment was shipped to North America in 1785. While stationed at Fort Niagara in Youngstown, New York Norton befriended a number of Six Nations people and began to learn the Mohawk language. He also became fascinated with his First Nations heritage. He deserted the army in 1787 and began teaching school to Mohawk children at the Teyendinaga settlement. He left that profession in 1791 to begin a career as a fur trader and eventually as an interpreter for the British Indian Department at Fort Niagara and Fort George in Niagara. His skills in the Mohawk language were formidable and he translated the Gospel of John from the New Testament into that language. Norton was adopted by the Mohawk Nation and was appointed to be a diplomat and war chief for that nation in 1799.
Major John Norton (Six Nations War Chief during the War of 1812, who recruited hundreds Six Nations and Delaware warriors to assist the British forces at several key battles during the war).
Soon after the declaration of War of 1812, Norton recruited a few hundred Six Nations and Delaware warriors to assist Major-General Sir Isaac Brock on the Niagara frontier, which was threatened by a huge American army at Lewiston. On October 13, 1812, the Americans invaded at Queenston Heights. Norton and 100 warriors played a key role in the defeat of the American invasion force. Norton led more warriors at the Battle of Fort George, Stoney Creek, Beaver Dams and several other actions during the war. Norton was recognized at the time as the principal leader of First Nations allies in Upper Canada. While Norton was a War Chief and Pine Tree Chief of the Six Nations, he was also commissioned as a Major in the British Army.
In 1815, after the war ended, Norton spent more than a year in Britain and there published his journal that has proven to be an invaluable historic resource for studying First Nations History. He moved back to Upper Canada, settling on the Grand River in 1816 but legal and financial troubles beset him. In 1823 he headed off to Arkansas territory in the US and for the next few years wandered the southern states, dying around 1831. His burial site is unknown.
6. John Brant, ( Dekarihokenh, Ahyouwaeghs, Tekarihogen) (1794-1832), Mohawk War Chief
John was the son of the famous Mohawk War Chief Joseph Brant and he became, along with Norton, a leading war chief of the Haudenosaunee or Six Nations during the War of 1812.
When the War of 1812 broke out, Brant and Norton immediately recruited a number of Six Nations warriors and offered their services to British Major-General Sir Isaac Brock, commander of the British forces and President of Upper Canada (Ontario). The Six Nations under Brant and Norton played a key role in the Battle of Queenston Heights and at several important battles during the three-year conflict.
Brant remains an interesting character with feet planted in both worlds. He was brought up primarily at his father’s mansion in Burlington, eating off fine china plates and silver service, tended to by the Brant family’s slaves, but also was at home in buckskins among his Six Nations cousins on the Grand River. He moved to the Grand River reservation following the death of his father in Burlington in 1807. He was a well educated man, having studied in schools in Ancaster and Niagara (Niagara-on-the-Lake) and may have gone on to bigger things if he had not died young of cholera in 1832.
Following the War of 1812 Brant worked tirelessly to secure Six Nations land rights and have the British supply the Six Nations with deeds to their lands. In 1821 he travelled to England with Robert Johnson Kerr to petition the Crown to come to an agreement with the Six Nations over land rights. Their efforts proved unsuccessful and Brant returned to Upper Canada. The land issues remain unsettled.
At the end of the War of 1812 Brant had been given a commission as a Lieutenant in the British Indian Department and in 1828 was appointed as the superintendent of the Six Nations of the Grand. Two years later he was elected to the House of Assembly of the Province of Upper Canada but lost the seat when the election was contested and the decision went against him.
Brant died in his 38th year during the cholera epidemic of 1832 and is buried in Her Majesty’s Chapel of the Mohawks in Brantford.
7. Matthew Elliott, British Indian Department Superintendent, (ca 1739-ca 1814)
Matthew Elliott was born around 1739 in County Donegal, Ireland and came to America in 1761, settling on the frontier of Pennsylvania. During the 1763 Native uprising, Elliott served in the army, marching to the relief of Pittsburgh. During this campaign he made friends with Shawnee people accompanying the British expedition. After hostilities ended in 1764, Elliott became a merchant and trader working among the Shawnee, Delaware and Mingo people in the Ohio Valley and learning the Shawnee language.
At the beginning of the American Revolution, Elliott tried to remain neutral and continue his trading enterprises. However, he chose sides in 1778 and rapidly became one of the most successful British agents who worked to forge alliances with First Nations against the rebellious colonies. Elliott continued to operate as a merchant but also led some very successful forays against the rebels, even capturing the famous American frontiersman Daniel Boone in a raid on Blue Licks, Kentucky.
After the revolution, Elliott established a large farm in Amherstburg, eventually owning 4000 acres of land. He continued to be a very effective agent for the Crown in their dealings with First Nations people in South-western Upper Canada, and the territories of surrounding Lake Erie, Lake Michigan and the Detroit River. Elliott was also appointed the Superintendent on the Detroit frontier by the British Indian Department. He continued to trade and lost his post as Superintendent when financial irregularities were suspected but was reappointed in 1808 when tensions with the US threatened war.
Elliott was heavily engaged with various First Nations leaders to strengthen alliances between the British and various Nations from the Detroit frontier as well as the Ohio Valley. Following an American invasion of Sandwich (Windsor) in July 1812, Elliott facilitated a meeting between Major-General Brock and key Aboriginal Native leaders including the Shawnee War Chief Tecumseh. Together they launched a bold and daring but successful campaign to capture Detroit, defeating a much larger American force.
Over the next year Elliott was active in campaigns against the Americans in the Ohio Valley. In the autumn of 1813, following the recapture of Detroit by the Americans and the abandonment of Amherstburg by the British, Elliott retreated with the army to Burlington area. He was now in his mid 70’s and the retreat led to a decline in his health which ultimately led to his death in 1814. He is buried in Burlington.
Women in the War of 1812
8. Laura Secord, Heroine of Beaver Dams (1775-1868)
Laura Secord was born on September 13, 1775 in Great Barrington, Massachusetts.
Early in the War of 1812, Laura’s husband James Secord, a sergeant in the 1st Lincoln militia, was wounded in the battle of Queenston Heights and was rescued from the battlefield by his wife.
On June 21, 1813, Laura overheard that the Americans intended to surprise the British outpost at Beaver Dams and capture the officer in charge, Lieutenant James FitzGibbon. With her husband having been wounded in battle, Laura resolved to take the message to the British herself.
Image of Laura Secord meeting British forces after travelling more than 12 miles to warn of an American invasion at the British outpost at Beaver Dams.
The distance to the outpost by direct road was 12 miles but Laura feared she would encounter American guards, so she took a route through fields and forests, making her journey extremely challenging and physically exhausting. Finally, after crossing Twelve Mile Creek on a fallen tree, Laura came unexpectedly on a First Nations’ encampment. Although initially frightened, she explained her mission, and the chief took her to FitzGibbon.
Two days later, on June 24, 1813, an American force was ambushed near Beaver Dams by some 400 First Nations warriors led by Dominique Ducharme and William Johnson Kerr. FitzGibbon then persuaded the American forces to surrender with 462 men to his own 50 men. However, in the official reports of the victory no mention was made of Laura Secord.
An American victory at Beaver Dams would have given the U.S. control over the entire Niagara peninsula, jeopardizing Upper Canada. The successful battle assured British control over the region, and is credited foremost as a victory by the First Nations peoples.
9. Mary Henry, "A Heroine Not to be Frightened" (ca 1770-ca 1830)
Mary Madden was born in County Antrim, Ireland, and married Dominic Henry, a Royal Artillery gunner from County Derry in 1790. Dominic was soon shipped back to North America and posted to Niagara, bringing Mary with him. By 1803, Dominic was a retired pensioner and was appointed the keeper of the first lighthouse on the Great Lakes, built in the Town of Niagara (now Niagara-on-the-Lake) in 1803.
One year into the War of 1812, on May 27, 1813, a large American Army made an amphibious assault on Niagara, landing not far from the lighthouse. The Battle of Fort George was fierce, with 5000 American soldiers resisted by 800 British regular soldiers, Canadian militia and Aboriginal allies. The Americans had more than 80 cannons covering their landing, firing so many cannon balls, bursting shells and iron grapeshot that the American shot was described as falling like a hailstorm on the British defenders. The British put up a stiff resistance but were slowly driven back. The Americans captured the Town and Fort George and occupied the area for the next seven months.
During the landing and the extremely heavy bombardment, casualties were heavy with half the British and Canadians killed or wounded. During this entire action, Mary Henry walked the battlefield, bringing coffee and food to the troops and tending the wounded. A chronicler describes her selfless bravery:
"Suddenly they saw a vision. Walking calmly through the shower of iron hail came Mary Madden Henry with hot coffee and food, seemingly as unconcerned as if she were in her own small garden on the shore on a Summer evening before peace was shattered. Time and again she went and came back with more sustenance, apparently guarded by some unseen angel from the peril which menaced her every step. Through the day until darkness brought respite she was caterer and nurse, the only woman in the company to bind the wounds of those maimed in the fight. These who survived never forgot that day, nor the courage of Mary Henry."
On December 10, 1813 the Americans abandoned Fort George and Niagara, burning the entire town on their departure. The inhabitants, primarily older men, women and children, were given an hour’s warning before they were forced to abandon their homes and all of their belongings to the flames. The weather was frigid and the snow deep and many faced starvation as these refugees sought shelter. Because it was an aid to shipping for both the Americans and the British, the lighthouse and keepers house were spared. Mary brought the refugees out of the cold and provided medical care, hot drinks and food. "Many a family was saved that night by the hospitality of the old soldier’s wife."
After the war, the Loyal and Patriotic Society of Upper Canada recognized Mary’s courage by granting her a gift of L25 (pounds sterling) and referred to her "a heroine not to be frightened."
While Laura Secord seems to have received much more attention and is the only well-known heroine of the war, Laura’s life was never at risk during her famous walk. Mary Henry’s deeds of selfless bravery should not be forgotten.
Naval/Maritime
10. Charles Frederick Rolette, Canadian Officer of the Royal Navy, (1783-1831)
Charles Frederick Rolette was born in Quebec City in 1783 and joined the Royal Navy as a midshipman while a young teen. He served under Admiral Nelson at the Battle of the Nile in 1799 and at Trafalgar in 1805.
Returning to his native soil in 1807, he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Provincial Marine, the government’s maritime service on the Great Lakes in British North America. Just before the outbreak of the War of 1812, Rolette was posted to Amherstburg as a First Lieutenant in charge of the brig General Hunter. When word of the outbreak of war reached Amherstburg on July 3, 1812, Rolette acted immediately, capturing an American vessel, the Cuyahoga, before the Americans in the Detroit area even became aware that their country had declared war on Britain. The first shots of the War of 1812 were fired in this brief engagement. On board the Cuyahoga were American commander General Hull’s papers and dispatches, providing the British with a great deal of intelligence on American strengths and deployment. Also captured on board were the wives of American officers and the instruments of the regimental bands. The British kept the papers and the musical instruments but returned the wives to Detroit.
Rolette was very active in the war, conducting several daring captures of American supply vessels and participating in land battles at the Capture of Detroit, the Battle of Frenchtown and the skirmish at the Canard River. He was severely wounded at Frenchtown in January 1813 but was able to return to duty by late summer of that year and commanded the British vessel Lady Prevost at the Battle of Lake Erie on September 10, 1813. The Americans won that battle. Rolette was again gravely wounded and captured when his vessel surrendered to the Americans. He spent the rest of the war as a prisoner-of-war.
When the war ended, Rolette returned to Quebec City but never fully recovered from his wounds, dying in 1831 in his 49th year.
11. Joseph Barss, Privateer (1776-1824)
Joseph Barss was born in Liverpool, Nova Scotia at the time of the American Revolution. While still a young boy, he began sailing on his father’s fishing schooners operating out of Liverpool and by the time he was 20 was commanding one of his father’s vessels. At that time, England was at war with France in a conflict that would continue until 1815. As part of the war effort, the English offered "letters of marque" to ship owners who turned their vessels into "privateers," armed vessels that preyed on enemy merchant shipping. In 1798, Barss began his career as a privateersman on one of his father’s largest ships as third-in-command and the following year was given his own small schooner to command. In this vessel he managed to capture a few French prizes of war but ran his schooner up on a reef soon afterwards. He took command of one of the French prizes and continued his life as a privateer for a few years but a lack of French shipping and an abundance of British privateers chasing them made this occupation less profitable. So Joseph turned to trade and used his vessel for strictly mercantile business by the time of the Peace of Amiens in 1803.
Word of the outbreak of war arrived in Liverpool on June 28, 1812, when the fast schooner the Liverpool Packet brought dispatches to the port. This vessel was owned by entrepreneur Enos Collins of Nova Scotia and three other shareholders including two of Barss’s brothers. In late August, the government began to issue "letters of marque" to prey on American shipping. Collins received permission to turn the Liverpool Packet into a privateer and later appointed the experienced Joseph Barss as its captain.
For the next several months, Barss cruised near the American ports off Boston and Cape Cod and during the course of the war, he captured more than 50 American vessels. More than 30 of these were taken to British ports and sold, which earned huge profits for Collins and the shareholders. His luck finally ran out in June 1813 when Barss was forced to surrender to a large American privateer out of Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Barss was imprisoned in Portsmouth but was later paroled, that is released from custody on the promise that he would not fight again against the Americans. Barss reportedly broke that parole, captured some more American shipping but was taken again in 1814 and this time kept behind bars until the war was over.
After the war, Barss gave up sailing, buying a farm near Kentville where he died at the age of 48. The dashing Joseph Barss was the most successful privateersman of the War of 1812.
African Canadian
12. Richard Pierpoint, a Black Veteran of three wars, (1744-1838)
Richard Pierpoint was a lad of 16 in Senegal, Africa when he was seized and sold into slavery in 1760. He was purchased by an English officer named Pierpoint who had settled in New York’s Hudson Valley. Richard became this officer’s servant and adopted his surname. The officer and Richard were mustered during the 1763 Aboriginal uprising in British North America, but likely saw no action.
After the outbreak of the American Revolution, Richard was given his freedom and eventually became a soldier, joining John Butler’s corps of Rangers operating out of Fort Niagara. When the war of the revolution ended in 1783, Butler’s Rangers were disbanded and the men were provided with land grants in what would become the Niagara region of Ontario. Richard received 200 acres of land in present-day St. Catharines and became somewhat of a community leader among Niagara’s Black population.
When the War of 1812 broke out Richard Pierpoint petitioned Major-General Sir Isaac Brock, proposing the formation of an all-Black company of militia to fight alongside the British during the war. Brock agreed with the proposal and ordered the formation of what was known as the "Coloured Corps," a small company of about 40 men from the Niagara and York districts mustered under white officers. The 68 year-old Richard Pierpoint served as a private in the corps and served on active duty throughout the conflict, including the Battle of Queenston Heights on October 13, 1812 when the corps was mentioned in dispatches as having played a key role in that British victory.
The Coloured Corps fought at the Battle of Fort George in May 1813, and were active in the Niagara campaign of 1813. In 1814 they worked on construction of fortifications, many of the men of the company having skills in carpentry and masonry.
When the war ended, the British offered land grants to the veterans of the Coloured Corps, establishing settlements in Oro and Garafraxa Townships. He petitioned the government to provide passage for him back to Senegal in Africa but this was never granted. He was given another land grant of 100 acres in Garafraxa in 1822 and was able to build a house and clear a few acres there but he was too old to farm it properly. Pierpoint died there in 1838.
Upper Canadians
13. William Hamilton Merritt, Cavalry officer and Canal Builder, (1793-1862)
William Hamilton Merritt was born in New York State but moved with his family to Upper Canada in 1795, settling in Niagara where the city of St. Catharines would one day be established. Merritt was well educated and proved to be a brilliant businessman. While still a teenager he became a partner in a store but sold that interest in 1812 to take up scientific agriculture on the family farm.
When the War of 1812 broke out, his father Thomas, a Revolutionary War cavalry officer, formed a squad of light dragoons (cavalry) to operate in the Niagara Region during the war. Young Hamilton Merritt was commissioned as an officer in that troop and most often led the unit in action during the war. Merritt was very active through 1812 and 1813, often experiencing hair-raising adventures behind enemy lines as a scout and dispatch rider. He spent long hours in the saddle riding the back ways of the Niagara Peninsula and, in doing so, formed a plan to link Lake Ontario to Lake Erie through a canal system that would follow the path of existing creeks and waterways. This idea would give rise to the Welland Canal in the decade following the war.
Merritt was at the Battle of Lundy’s Lane in July 1814 when he mistakenly rode into the American lines and was captured. He spent the rest of the war in captivity in Massachusetts, returning to Niagara in 1815. On his return, he built a store in the village of St. Catharines, and began operating a grist mill nearby. He continued to petition the government to build a canal to link the Chippawa River to the 12 Mile Creek, climbing the Niagara Escarpment to provide passage between Lake Ontario and Lake Erie. In 1824 the provincial legislature began work on the Welland Canal.
Merritt continued to be a pillar of the community, investing in major projects including the construction of a suspension bridge across the Niagara River. He also got involved in provincial politics and was elected to serve in the legislative assembly of Upper Canada. Merritt was on a business trip when he died near Cornwall in 1862.
http://1812.gc.ca/eng/1317828221939/1317828660198
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Speaking Notes for the Honourable James Moore, Minister of Canadian Heritage and Official Languages on the Occasion of the Official Launch of Commemorative Events for the 200th Anniversary of the War of 1812
Toronto, Ontario
June 18, 2012
CHECK AGAINST DELIVERY
Honourable colleagues,
Distinguished guests,
Ladies and gentlemen,
Students from G.A. Brown Middle School who are here
— and I also know that the Willowdale Christian School students are going to be with us as well later on this morning—
Welcome to historic Fort York, site of the battle of York during the War of 1812 and home to Canada’s largest collection of the original War of 1812 buildings.
Thank you to the staff of Fort York and indeed to the City of Toronto for the outstanding work that they have done to make today possible. It’s a pleasure to be here on behalf of Prime Minister Stephen Harper.
You know the War of 1812 was a defining moment in our country’s history. The War of 1812 was the fight for Canada.
And it was here where the Battle of York came to its violent climax in 1813. The U.S. Navy stormed our shores from Lake Ontario and occupied this fort and burned our Parliament buildings during the five-day occupation.
But our British, Canadian, First Nations and Métis troops persevered. After several more U.S. raids, British troops returned to York and rebuilt these fortifications. And, in 1814, our troops successfully repelled another American invasion using the fortifications that are still standing today.
As Canadians, we are used to thinking of our neighbours to the south as friends and allies. But, 200 years ago, American troops stormed our borders. Thomas Jefferson said the American invasion would be "a mere matter of marching."
British troops, Canadian militia and First Nations and Métis allies joined together to defend our borders. They fought bravely. They repelled the American invasion, and the Canada that we know today was the ultimate result.
Which is to say that without the War of 1812, Canada as we know it would not exist.
Without their bravery in the War of 1812, we might be flying a very different flag here at Fort York today.
Without the War of 1812, the French fact in Canada would not exist.
Without the War of 1812, the identity of our Aboriginal population would have been fundamentally changed.
The War of 1812 paved the way to Confederation for Canada in 1867.
The War of 1812 was the fight for Canada.
Those who demonstrated bravery and love for our country during the War became Canadian heroes: Sir Isaac Brock, Lieutenant Colonel Charles-Michel de Salaberry, Tecumseh, Laura Secord and many others.
The 200th anniversary of the War of 1812 is an opportunity for all Canadians to take pride in our traditions and our collective history.
The War of 1812 was instrumental in the creation of our military as well, and we are honoured today to be joined by the members of the Mississauga First Nations, whose ancestors served during the Battle of York.
And I would also like to acknowledge the presence of members of the Queen’s York Rangers.
It was just last month, in the presence of Prime Minister Harper and His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, that the Queen’s York Rangers were recognized for two regiments of the York militia that served in defence of Toronto during the Battle of York.
This honour, won by the sacrifice of early Ontarians just two centuries ago, will now also be carried by the Queen’s York Rangers and three other Ontario regiments of the Canadian Army.
For more than 200 years, the Rangers have come to embody the spirit of sacrifice and service to our country.
I know the Rangers and their comrades in arms across the Canadian Armed Forces are proud to commemorate the War of 1812. That’s because today’s men and women in uniform will be the first to tell you of the importance of remembering the sacrifices of those who fought for Canada. These regiments perpetuate the legacy of those who fought for Canada, as do the proud descendants of our heroes from the War of 1812.
And, with respect to those heroes and their descendants, I would just like to point out some special guests who are with us here today. Actually, I would like to ask them to rise, if they wouldn’t mind.
Shari Graydon, who’s a direct descendant of Laura Secord is with us here today.
Nicholas de Salaberry, who’s a direct descendant of Lieutenant-Colonel Charles de Salaberry is here with us today.
And Gilbert Wahiakeron, a descendant of Major John Norton is also with us here today.
We’ll have the opportunity to hear from them briefly in a moment.
Recognizing Canada’s past is so essential to this country’s health and well-being today and indeed for the generations to come.
Over the next few years, our Government will continue to promote and recognize Canada’s history and our historic moments like the War of 1812.
We’ve already announced improvements to approximately 40 national historic sites, including here at Fort York, and we will continue to recognize and honour current Canadian Forces regiments in 1812 ceremonies.
During this bicentennial period, I invite all Canadians to visit a national historic site, take part in a local celebration or re-enactment, visit a local museum, talk to your friends and family, and learn about our country’s rich history so we can appreciate and cherish our heritage.
As I often say, Canada is the second-largest country in the world. But, in terms of population, we’re the 36th-largest country in the world. What binds us together is culture, a shared history, and the ability to talk to one another and understand our past and why we are the way we are today so we can pave the way for a prosperous and united future together.
Recognizing today’s anniversary, the bicentennial of the War of 1812, is an important step in recognizing our past, celebrating our heroes and understanding all those who have sacrificed so that Canada can today stand tall and proud.
Thank you all very much for being here. I appreciate your attendance. And thank you so much to all those who’ve made this day a reality. Thank you very much.
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Backgrounder
The Creation of the Commemorative Theatre Honour and Honorary Distinction "DEFENCE OF CANADA – 1812-1815 – DÉFENSE DU CANADA"
BG–12.045 - September 14, 2012
As part of the Government of Canada’s commemoration of the War of 1812, on September 14, 2012, Prime Minister Stephen Harper announced the creation of an emblazonable Theatre Honour and a non-emblazonable Honorary Distinction, both entitled "DEFENCE OF CANADA – 1812-1815 – DÉFENSE DU CANADA". These new unit honours will be awarded to historical Canadian colonial units which saw active service during the War of 1812. In turn, these units will be perpetuated by current serving Canadian Forces (CF) units.
The Theatre Honour and the Honorary Distinction "DEFENCE OF CANADA – 1812-1815 – DÉFENSE DU CANADA" were created to recognize the contribution of historical units to the success of the War of 1812. They also serve to recognize their contribution to the foundation of Canada and the modern military forces in this country. The Theatre Honour is awarded to units who participated in a successful engagement against an armed enemy, whereas the Honorary Distinction is awarded to units who participated in other active service, such as garrison duties, or being held in reserve but have not been successfully engaged with the enemy.
For the purpose of the War of 1812 commemoration, the newly created Theatre Honour can be emblazoned or embroidered onto perpetuating unit Colours, Guidons, or Standards in the traditional battle honour scroll format. The Honorary Distinction is non-emblazonable and cannot be embroidered onto perpetuating unit Colors, Guidons, or Standards. It may, however, be placed on unit accoutrements such as letterhead, drum major’s sashes, drums and websites. In the latter case, there is no associated symbol or image to the Honorary Distinction and will be displayed in full, italicized text, as "DEFENCE OF CANADA – 1812-1815 – DÉFENSE DU CANADA".
In accordance with CF traditions and unit honours policy, historical Canadian militia units which are awarded these new honours can be perpetuated by current CF units. Other current units have been awarded the new honours directly to commemorate the service of Fencible regiments of the British Army that were recruited in North America. As such, to date the Chief of the Defence Staff has approved awards and the perpetuations listed below:
The Emblazonable Theatre Honour "DEFENCE OF CANADA – 1812-1815 – DÉFENSE DU CANADA" to be emblazoned on regimental colours
Historic Unit Awarded the Theatre Honour
Selection of Successful Engagements in which the Historic Unit Participated
Current Unit Inheriting the Theatre Honour through Perpetuation
5th Battalion, Select Embodied Militia
Châteauguay (1813)
The Black Watch (Royal Highland Regiment) of Canada
1st Militia Light Infantry Battalion
Châteauguay (1813)
The Canadian Grenadier Guards
2nd Battalion, Select Embodied Militia
Châteauguay (1813)
The Canadian Grenadier Guards
4th Battalion, Select Embodied Militia
Châteauguay (1813)
Les Fusiliers du St-Laurent
Longue-Pointe Division (1812-15)
Plattsburgh (1813)
Les Fusiliers Mont-Royal
1st Battalion, Select Embodied Militia
Châteauguay (1813)
Le Régiment de la Chaudière
Les Chasseurs
Châteauguay (1813)
Royal 22e Régiment
Beauharnois Division (1812-15)
Châteauguay (1813)
Royal 22e Régiment
Boucherville Division (1812-15)
Châteauguay (1813)
Royal 22e Régiment
Canadian Light Dragoons
Beaver Dams (1813); Fort Schlosser (July 1813)
The Royal Canadian Hussars (Montreal)
Frontier Light Infantry
Lacolle Mills (1814)
The Sherbrooke Hussars
Provincial Corps of Light Infantry (Canadian Voltigeurs)
Châteauguay (1813); Crysler’s Farm (1813)
Les Voltigeurs de Québec
3rd Battalion, Select Embodied Militia
Châteauguay (1813)
Not currently perpetuated
The Provincial Artillery Company
Stoney Creek (1813)
56th Field Artillery Regiment, RCA
Provincial Royal Artillery Drivers (The Car Brigade)
Queenston (1812); Niagara (1814)
56th Field Artillery Regiment, RCA
1st Regiment of Norfolk Militia (1812-15)
Detroit (1812); Niagara (1814)
56th Field Artillery Regiment, RCA
2nd Regiment of Norfolk Militia (1812-15)
Detroit (1812); Niagara (1814)
56th Field Artillery Regiment, RCA
Battalion of Incorporated Militia of Upper Canada
Niagara (1814)
The Brockville Rifles
The Lincoln and Welland Regiment
The Princess of Wales’ Own Regiment
The Queen’s York Rangers (1st American Regiment) (RCAC)
1st Regiment of Leeds Militia (1812-15)
Ogdensburg (1813)
The Brockville Rifles
The Loyal Kent Volunteers (Kent Rangers)
Niagara (1814)
The Essex and Kent Scottish
The Western Rangers (Caldwell’s Rangers)
Maumee (1813); Niagara (1814)
The Essex and Kent Scottish
1st Regiment of Essex Militia (1812-15)
Detroit (1812); Maumee (1813); Niagara (1814)
The Essex and Kent Scottish
2nd Regiment of Essex Militia (1812-15)
Detroit (1812); Maumee (1813); Niagara (1814)
The Essex and Kent Scottish
1st Regiment of Kent Militia (1812-15)
Detroit (1812); Maumee (1813)
The Essex and Kent Scottish
The Coloured Corps (Captain Runchey’s Company of Coloured Men)
Queenston (1812)
The Lincoln and Welland Regiment
1st Regiment of Lincoln Militia (1812-15)
Queenston (1812); Niagara (1814)
The Lincoln and Welland Regiment
2nd Regiment of Lincoln Militia (1812-15)
Queenston (1812); Niagara (1813-14)
The Lincoln and Welland Regiment
3rd Regiment of Lincoln Militia (1812-15)
Queenston (1812)
The Lincoln and Welland Regiment
4th Regiment of Lincoln Militia (1812-15)
Queenston (1812); Niagara (1814)
The Lincoln and Welland Regiment
5th Regiment of Lincoln Militia (1812-15)
Detroit (1812); Queenston (1812); Niagara (1814)
The Lincoln and Welland Regiment
1st Regiment of York Militia (1812-15)
Detroit (1812); Queenston (1812)
The Queen’s York Rangers (1st American Regiment) (RCAC)
3rd Regiment of York Militia (1812-15)
Detroit (1812); Queenston (1812)
The Queen’s York Rangers (1st American Regiment) (RCAC)
1st Regiment of Middlesex Militia (1812-15)
Detroit (1812); Niagara (1814)
The Royal Canadian Regiment
1st Regiment of Oxford Militia (1812-15)
Detroit (1812)
The Royal Canadian Regiment
2nd Regiment of York Militia (1812-15)
Detroit (1812); Queenston (1812); Niagara (1814)
The Royal Hamilton Light Infantry (Wentworth Regiment)
1st Regiment of Dundas Militia (1812-15)
Crysler’s Farm (1813)
Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Highlanders
1st Regiment of Glengarry Militia (1812-15)
Ogdensburg (1813)
Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Highlanders
2nd Regiment of Glengarry Militia (1812-15)
Ogdensburg (1813)
Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Highlanders
1st Regiment of Stormont Militia (1812-15)
Ogdensburg (1813)
Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Highlanders
Captain Fraser’s Troop of Provincial Light Dragoons
Crysler’s Farm (1813)
Not currently perpetuated
Niagara Provincial Light Dragoons (Niagara Frontier Guides)
Niagara (1814)
Not currently perpetuated
1st Regiment of Grenville Militia (1812-15)
Ogdensburg (1813)
Not currently perpetuated
2nd Regiment of Grenville Militia (1812-15)
Ogdensburg (1813)
Not currently perpetuated
In addition, the current serving The North Shore (New Brunswick) Regiment and the 1st Battalion, The Royal New Brunswick Regiment will also receive the Theatre Honour to commemorate the service of the 104th (New Brunswick) Regiment of Foot. Likewise, The Royal Newfoundland Regiment will also receive the Theatre Honour to commemorate the service of the Royal Newfoundland Fencible Infantry, as will the Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Highlanders to commemorate the service of the Glengarry Light Infantry Fencibles and the Royal 22e Régiment to commemorate the service of the Canadian Fencible Infantry.
The Non-Emblazonable Honorary Distinction
"DEFENCE OF CANADA – 1812-1815 – DÉFENSE DU CANADA"
Historic Units
Perpetuating Unit
1st Battalion, Shelburne Regiment (1812-15)
2nd Battalion, Shelburne Regiment (1812-15)
3rd Battalion, Shelburne Regiment (1812-15)
4th Battalion, Shelburne Regiment (1812-15)
84th Independent Field Battery, RCA
1st Battalion, County of Sydney Regiment (1812-15)
2nd Battalion, County of Sydney Regiment (1812-15)
1st Battalion, Cumberland Regiment (1812-15)
Parrsborough Corps (1812-15)
1st Battalion, The Nova Scotia Highlanders
1st Battalion, East Annapolis Regiment (1812-15)
2nd Battalion, East Annapolis Regiment (1812-15)
1st Battalion, King’s County Regiment (1812-15)
2nd Battalion, King’s County Regiment (1812-15)
1st Battalion, West Annapolis Regiment (1812-15)
2nd Battalion, West Annapolis Regiment (1812-15)
The West Nova Scotia Regiment
1st Battalion, Charlotte County Regiment (1812-15)
2nd Battalion, Charlotte County Regiment (1812-15)
3rd Field Artillery Regiment, RCA
1st Battalion, Westmorland County Regiment (1812-15)
2nd Battalion, Westmorland County Regiment (1812-15)
8th Canadian Hussars (Princess Louise’s)
1st Battalion, Northumberland County Regiment (1812-15)
2nd Battalion, Northumberland County Regiment (1812-15)
3rd Battalion, Northumberland County Regiment (1812-15)
1st Battalion, Saint John County Regiment (1812-15)
1st Battalion, York County Regiment (1812-15)
2nd Battalion, York County Regiment (1812-15)
The North Shore (New Brunswick) Regiment and 1st Battalion,
The Royal New Brunswick Regiment
Corps of Provincial Royal Artillery Drivers
Royal Militia Artillery
2nd Field Artillery Regiment, RCA
8th Battalion, Select Embodied Militia
Trois-Rivières Division (1812-15)
12e Régiment blindé du Canada
Corps of Canadian Voyageurs
Montreal Incorporated Volunteers
Montreal Militia Battalion
Provincial Commissariat Voyageurs
1st Battalion (City of Montreal) "British Militia" (1812-15)
The Canadian Grenadier Guards
2nd Militia Light Infantry Battalion
Canadian Chasseurs
Les Fusiliers du St-Laurent
2nd Battalion (City of Montreal) (1812-15)
3rd Battalion (City of Montreal) (1812-15)
Pointe-Claire Division (1812-15)
Les Fusiliers Mont-Royal
Dorchester Provincial Light Dragoons
1st Lotbinière Division (1812-15)
Le Régiment de la Chaudière
7th Battalion, Select Embodied Militia
Beloeil Division (1812-15)
Chambly Division (1812-15)
Isle Jésus Division (1812-15)
St. Denis Division (1812-15)
St. Hyacinthe Division (1812-15)
St. Ours Division (1812-15)
Verchères Division (1812-15)
Royal 22e Régiment
Company of Guides
Royal Montreal Troop of Volunteer Cavalry
Argenteuil Division (1812-15)
Vaudreuil Division (1812-15)
The Royal Canadian Hussars (Montreal)
1st Battalion, Eastern Townships District (1812-15)
4th Battalion, Eastern Townships District (1812-15)
The Sherbrooke Hussars
6th Battalion, Select Embodied Militia
1st Battalion (City of Quebec) (1812-15)
2nd Battalion (City of Quebec) (1812-15)
Beauport Division (1812-15)
Les Voltigeurs de Québec
Quebec Light Cavalry
Quebec Volunteers
3rd Battalion (City of Quebec) "British Militia" (1812-15)
L’Acadie Division (1812-15)
L’Assomption Division (1812-15)
Berthier Division (1812-15)
Blainville Division (1812-15)
Isle d’Orléans Division (1812-15)
Lavaltrie Division (1812-15)
Rivière du Chêne Division (1812-15)
Terrebonne Division (1812-15)
Yamaska Division (1812-15)
Not currently perpetuated
The Incorporated Artillery Company
7th Toronto Regiment, RCA
Provincial Corps of Artificers
31 Combat Engineer Regiment (The Elgin’s)
2nd Regiment of Leeds Militia (1812-15)
The Brockville Rifles
The Loyal Essex Volunteers (Essex Rangers)
The Essex and Kent Scottish
1st Regiment of Durham Militia (1812-15)
1st Regiment of Hastings Militia (1812-15)
1st Regiment of Northumberland Militia (1812-15)
1st Regiment of Prince Edward Militia (1812-15)
The Hastings and Prince Edward Regiment
1st Regiment of Addington Militia (1812-15)
1st Regiment of Frontenac Militia (1812-15)
1st Regiment of Lennox Militia (1812-15)
The Princess of Wales’ Own Regiment
The Loyal London Volunteers
The Royal Canadian Regiment
1st Regiment of Prescott Militia (1812-15)
Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Highlanders
Captain Adam’s Troop of Provincial Light Dragoons
Not currently perpetuated
In addition, the current serving The Halifax Rifles (RCAC) will also receive the Honorary Distinction to commemorate the service of the Nova Scotia Fencible Infantry. The North Shore (New Brunswick) Regiment and the 1st Battalion, The Royal New Brunswick Regiment, will also receive the Honorary Distinction to commemorate the service of the New Brunswick Fencibles.
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The Making of Canada- thanks to our Aboriginals Peoples- who made us strong- British, French and r Militia.
Canada's Defence Minister Peter MacKay-
Backgrounder
War Of 1812 Battle Honours
BG–12.044 - September 14, 2012
June 2012 marked 200 years since the start of the War of 1812 – a war that saw Aboriginal peoples, local and volunteer militias, and English- and French-speaking regiments fight together to save Canada from the American invasion.
The War helped establish our path toward becoming an independent and free country, united under the Crown with a respect for linguistic and ethnic diversity. The heroic efforts of Canadians helped define who we are today, what side of the border we live on, and which flag we salute.
Commemorating key milestones of our nation’s history and rich military heritage, such as the War of 1812, serves to remind us of defining moments that made our country what it is today, and to honour those who fought valiantly to defend our values and freedom.
To pay tribute to regiments and soldiers who successfully defended Canada in the War of 1812, Prime Minister Stephen Harper, on September 14, 2012, announced that battle honours will be awarded to select regiments that perpetuate 1812 units which participated in decisive battles for the defence of Canada in the War. The following Battle Honours commemorate the most significant victories of the War of 1812: "QUEENSTON", "MAUMEE", "CHÂTEAUGUAY", "CRYSLER’S FARM", "NIAGARA", and as previously announced. "DETROIT".
Queenston
On October 13, 1812, British, Canadian and First Nations Forces marched to Queenston to oppose an invasion by a numerically superior American army, forcing the surrender of nearly 1,000 soldiers. This victory early in the war was vital in bolstering the morale of Upper Canada as it showed that Canada could be successfully defended.
On September 14, 2012, the following regiments, linked to this pivotal engagement, were presented with Battle Honour "QUEENSTON":
•The Queen’s York Rangers (1st American Regiment) Royal Canadian Armoured Corps (RCAC) (perpetuating unit of the 1st and 3rd Regiments of York Militia (1812-15));
•56th Field Artillery Regiment, Royal Canadian Artillery (RCA) (perpetuating unit of the Provincial Royal Artillery Drivers (The Car Brigade));
•The Royal Hamilton Light Infantry (Wentworth Regiment) (perpetuating unit of the 2nd Regiment of York Militia (1812-15)); and
•The Lincoln and Welland Regiment (perpetuating unit of the The Coloured Corps (Captain Runchey’s Company of Coloured Men) and the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th Regiments of Lincoln Militia (1812-15)).
Maumee
The Battle of Maumee took place on May 5, 1813, on the Maumee (or Miami) River in Ohio, USA. This battle occurred during the first siege of the American installation Fort Meigs, which was built in the aftermath of their loss of Detroit and the defeat at the battle of Frenchtown in January 1813. In an effort to forestall an American offensive against British-held Detroit, a small force consisting of British regulars, including the Royal Newfoundland Fencibles, Canadian militia and First Nations allies attempted to capture the fort.
At the battle of Maumee during that siege, American forces suffered significant casualties and while the siege of Fort Meigs ultimately proved unsuccessful, the victory at Maumee bought the defenders of Upper Canada (Ontario) preciously needed time. Ultimately the American forces in the western theatre of the war were never able to combine with American troops in Niagara that year.
On September 14, 2012, the following regiments were presented with Battle Honour "MAUMEE":
•The Essex and Kent Scottish (perpetuating unit of The Western Rangers (Caldwell’s Rangers), the 1st and 2nd Regiments of Essex Militia (1812-15) and the 1st Regiment of Kent Militia (1812-15); and
•The Royal Newfoundland Regiment (to commemorate the service of the Royal Newfoundland Fencible Infantry).
Châteauguay
Fought on October 26, 1813, along the shores of the Châteauguay River near Montréal, the famous Battle of the Châteauguay proved to one of the most significant battles in Canadian history. Facing an American force almost ten times their size, a small band of only Canadian troops stopped the invading army from attacking Montreal. "Les héros de Chateauguay" became instantly famous throughout the province.
In late October 1813, two American armies were preparing to move on Montreal. The taking of Montreal would cut the supply line to the defenders of Upper Canada (Ontario) and position American forces to strike Quebec City the following spring. One American army of nearly four thousand troops, under Major General Wade Hampton, advanced on Montreal and took up position at Four Corners, New York, near the Chateauguay River. To counter Hampton’s army, Lieutenant-Colonel Charles-Michel d'Irumberry de Salaberry was summoned to the Châteauguay River. Accompanying De Salaberry and his Canadians was a force of Seven Nations warriors.
Defensive positions were quickly established along on the west side of the river. On October 26, Hampton chose to strike. Aware of Canadian entrenchments, the American General divided his army in two. The plan was one half of his army would attack de Salaberry on the west side of the river. Meanwhile the other half of his army would cross the river and outflank or bypass de Salaberry’s men. Outnumbered, de Salaberry encouraged his buglers to play indiscriminately in order to make the enemy think his force was larger than it actually was.
Soon a force of almost two thousand American troops attacked de Salaberry and his four hundred defenders. Safe behind his abattis, de Salaberry’s stopped the American advance with a brisk and accurate fire. Meanwhile, to challenge the Americans moving forward on the east side of the river, Lieutenant-Colonel "Red George" Macdonell positioned to the rear sent two light companies from the 1er and 3e Select Embodied Militia. "In gallantry cannot be surpassed" is how de Salaberry described the bravery of these two companies who fought against the American troops in the thick woods on the east bank. After about four hours of fighting, the American general ordered his troops to retreat.
Expecting another attack, the Canadians stayed in their entrenchments for weeks, exposed continually to the rain and cold. Many suffered significantly from the foul weather and fell ill daily while they continued to defend their province. However the Americans had abandoned his plans and Montreal would never again be threatened so closely by an invading army.
On September 14, 2012, the following regiments were presented with Battle Honour "CHÂTEAUGUAY" to honour the defenders that fought there in 1813:
•Royal 22e Régiment (perpetuating unit of Les Chasseurs, Beauharnois Division (1812-15) and Boucherville Division (1812-15) and to commemorate the service of the Canadian Regiment of Fencible Infantry ;
•The Canadian Grenadier Guards (perpetuating unit of the 2nd Battalion, Select Embodied Militia and the 1st Militia Light Infantry Battalion);
•The Black Watch (Royal Highland Regiment) of Canada (perpetuating unit of the 5th Battalion, Select Embodied Militia);
•Les Voltigeurs de Québec (perpetuating unit of the Provincial Corps of Light Infantry (Canadian Voltigeurs)).
•Les Fusiliers du St-Laurent (perpetuating unit of the 4th Battalion, Select Embodied Militia); and
•Le Régiment de la Chaudière (perpetuating unit of the 1st Battalion, Select Embodied Militia).
Crysler’s Farm
On November 11, 1813, as part of the same two-pronged thrust at Montreal that led to the battle of Chateauguay, a second American army landed near present-day Morrisburg, Ontario. In the Battle of Crysler’s Farm, the outnumbered British (including the Canadian Regiment of Fencible Infantry), reinforced by three companies of Quebec’s Canadian Voltigeurs, a troop of the Provincial Light Dragoons and thirty First Nations allies, staved off several American attacks, inflicting heavy casualties and forced the Americans to retreat from the field. As a result of the combined successes at Châteauguay and Crysler’s Farm, neither Montreal nor Kingston would be seriously threatened for the rest of the War.
On September 14, 2012, the following regiments were presented with Battle Honour "CRYSLER’S FARM":
•Royal 22e Régiment (to commemorate the service of the Canadian Regiment of Fencible Infantry);
•Les Voltigeurs de Québec (perpetuating unit of the Provincial Corps of Light Infantry (Canadian Voltigeurs));
•Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Highlanders (perpetuating unit of the 1st Regiment of Dundas Militia (1812-15)).
Niagara
Fought on the Niagara peninsula between December 1813 and September 1814, the Niagara campaign, which includes the Battle of Lundy’s Lane, was the last determined effort by the invading American army to gain exclusive possession of Upper Canada. Had the Americans succeeded in their invasion of the Niagara Peninsula, it could have led to their dominance of Lake Ontario and of Upper Canada. This also would have led to the isolation of Lower Canada and possibly to complete victory. Only through the determined efforts of allied forces was this offensive defeated.
After the War of 1812, the "NIAGARA" battle honour was originally awarded by the British Government to three units from Ontario and New Brunswick, specifically: The 104th (New Brunswick) Regiment of Foot, the Glengarry Light Infantry Fencibles and the Battalion of Incorporated Militia of Upper Canada.
On May 22, 2012, the following regiments were presented with Battle Honour "NIAGARA" through their collective perpetuation of the Battalion of Incorporated Militia of Upper Canada:
•The Queen’s York Rangers (1st American Regiment) (RCAC);
•The Princess of Wales’ Own Regiment;
•The Lincoln and Welland Regiment; and
•The Brockville Rifles.
In addition, to commemorate the service of the 104th (New Brunswick) Regiment of Foot, the Battle Honour "NIAGARA" will also be awarded to The North Shore (New Brunswick) Regiment stationed in Bathurst, N.B. and to the 1st Battalion, The Royal New Brunswick Regiment, stationed in Fredericton, N.B. Likewise, to commemorate the service of the Glengarry Light Infantry Fencibles, the Battle Honour "NIAGARA" will be awarded to the Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Highlanders stationed at Cornwall, Ont.
On September 14, 2012, it was announced that the following regiments will also receive the Battle Honour "NIAGARA" to fully recognize the service of militia units during the Niagara campaign. These are:
•56th Field Artillery Regiment, RCA (perpetuating unit of the Provincial Royal Artillery Drivers (The Car Brigade) and the 1st and 2nd Regiments of Norfolk Militia (1812-15));
•The Essex and Kent Scottish (perpetuating unit of The Loyal Kent Volunteers (Kent Rangers), The Western Rangers (Caldwell’s Rangers) and the 1st and 2nd Regiments of Essex Militia (1812-15));
•The Royal Canadian Regiment (perpetuating unit of the 1st Regiment of Middlesex Militia (1812-15));
•The Royal Hamilton Light Infantry (Wentworth Regiment) (perpetuating unit of the 2nd Regiment of York Militia (1812-15)); and
•The Lincoln and Welland Regiment (perpetuating unit of the 1st, 2nd, 4th and 5th Regiments of Lincoln Militia (1812-15)).
Battle Honour previously announced for the War of 1812:
Detroit
The Battle of Detroit was fought in the territory bordering the Detroit River on August 15-16, 1812. After a failed attempt by the Americans to invade Canadian soil, a small force of regulars, including the Royal Newfoundland Fencible infantry, Canadian militia and First Nations allies set up cannon positions in Upper Canada and crossed the Detroit River to lay siege. With only a few shots from the cannon and a display of force, the Americans were bluffed into surrendering Fort Detroit, some 2,500 troops, and the entire territory of Michigan. From their new base at Fort Detroit, the British were able to support Tecumseh and his First Nations warriors in a joint offensive against the Americans in north-western Ohio early in 1813.
On August 15, 2012, the following regiments were presented with Battle Honour "DETROIT":
•The Queen’s York Rangers (1st American Regiment) (RCAC) (perpetuating unit of the 1st and 3rd Regiments of York Militia (1812-15));
•56th Field Artillery Regiment, RCA (perpetuating unit of the 1st and 2nd Regiments of Norfolk Militia (1812-15));
•The Royal Canadian Regiment (perpetuating unit of the 1st Regiment of Middlesex Militia (1812-15) and the 1st Regiment of Oxford Militia (1812-15)); and
•The Royal Hamilton Light Infantry (Wentworth Regiment) (perpetuating unit of the 2nd Regiment of York Militia (1812-15));
•The Lincoln and Welland Regiment (perpetuating unit of the 5th Regiment of Lincoln Militia (1812-15));
•The Essex and Kent Scottish (perpetuating unit of the 1st and 2nd Regiments of Essex Militia (1812-15) and the 1st Regiment of Kent Militia (1812-15)); and
•The Royal Newfoundland Regiment (to commemorate the service of the Royal Newfoundland Fencible Infantry).
---------------------------
The enormous hardships of the American Indians made me weep after watching Steven Spielberg's INTO THE WEST.... ABOUT THE LAKOTA PEOPLES- Sitting Bull and the American Indians came 2 Canada in droves knowing they would be protected by GRANDMOTHER (Queen Victoria)- they loved her dearly- the AMERICAS FIRST PEOPLES 10,000 from Canada, America, Mexico onwards- then Australia and so on have been so hard done by... but nothing compares 2 America's Indians... and Into The West movie... imho
Lakota people
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Lakota (disambiguation).
 |
| Lakota portraits |
| Total population |
|---|
| 55,000 Lakota on reservations (mid-1990s)[1] 103,255 Sioux on self-identified 1990 census[1] |
| Regions with significant populations |
 United States(  North Dakota and  South Dakota) |
| Languages |
| Lakota, English |
| Religion |
| traditional tribal religion, Sun Dance, Native American Church, Christianity |
| Related ethnic groups |
| other members of Oceti Sakohowin (Santee, Sisseton Wahpeton Oyate, Yankton, Yanktonai)[2] |
The Lakota are the westernmost of the three Siouan language groups, occupying lands in both North and South Dakota. The seven bands or "sub-tribes" of the Lakota are:
- Sičháŋǧu (Brulé, Burned Thighs)[1]
- Oglála ("They Scatter Their Own")[1]
- Itázipčho (Sans Arc, Without Bows)[1]
- Húŋkpapȟa ("End Village",[1] Camps at the End of the Camp Circle)
- Mnikȟówožu ("Plant beside the Stream",[1] Planters by the Water)
- Sihásapa ("Black Feet")[1]
- Oóhenuŋpa (Two Kettles)[1]
Contents
[hide]History[edit]
Siouan language speakers may have originated in the lower Mississippi River region and then migrated to or originated in the Ohio Valley. They were agriculturalists and may have been part of the Mound Builder civilization during the 9th–12th centuries CE.[1] In the late 16th and early 17th centuries, Dakota-Lakota-Nakota speakers lived in the upper Mississippi Region in present day Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, and the Dakotas. Conflicts with Anishnaabe and Cree peoples pushed the Lakota west onto the Great Plains in the mid- to late-17th century.[1]Early Lakota history is recorded in their Winter counts (Lakota: waníyetu wówapi), pictorial calendars painted on hides or later recorded on paper. The Battiste Good winter count records Lakota history back to 900 CE, when White Buffalo Calf Woman gave the Lakota people the White Buffalo Calf Pipe.[3]
Around 1730, Cheyenne people introduced the Lakota to horses,[4] called šuŋkawakaŋ ("dog [of] power/mystery/wonder"). After their adoption of horse culture, Lakota society centered on the buffalo hunt on horseback. The total population of the Sioux (Lakota, Santee, Yankton, and Yanktonai) was estimated at 28,000 by French explorers in 1660. The Lakota population was first estimated at 8,500 in 1805, growing steadily and reaching 16,110 in 1881. The Lakota were, thus, one of the few Indian tribes to increase in population in the 19th century.[5] The number of Lakota has now increased to about 70,000, of whom about 20,500 still speak the Lakota language.[6]
The large and powerful Arikara, Mandan, and Hidatsa villages had long prevented the Lakota from crossing the Missouri. However, the great smallpox epidemic of 1772–1780 destroyed three-quarters of these tribes. The Lakota crossed the river into the drier, short-grass prairies of the High Plains. These newcomers were the Saône, well-mounted and increasingly confident, who spread out quickly. In 1765, a Saône exploring and raiding party led by Chief Standing Bear discovered the Black Hills (the Paha Sapa), then the territory of the Cheyenne. Ten years later, the Oglála and Brulé also crossed the river. In 1776, the Lakota defeated the Cheyenne, who had earlier taken the region from the Kiowa.[citation needed] The Cheyenne then moved west to the Powder River country,[4] and the Lakota made the Black Hills their home.
Initial United States contact with the Lakota during the Lewis and Clark Expedition of 1804–1806 was marked by a standoff. Lakota bands refused to allow the explorers to continue upstream, and the expedition prepared for battle, which never came.[7] Nearly half a century later, after the United States Army had built Fort Laramie without permission on Lakota land, the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851 was negotiated to protect travelers on the Oregon Trail. The Cheyenne and Lakota had previously attacked emigrant parties in a competition for resources, and also because some settlers had encroached on their lands.[8] The Fort Laramie Treaty acknowledged Lakota sovereignty over the Great Plains in exchange for free passage on the Oregon Trail for "as long as the river flows and the eagle flies".
The United States government did not enforce the treaty restriction against unauthorized settlement. Lakota and other bands attacked settlers and even emigrant trains, causing public pressure on the US Army to punish the hostiles. On September 3, 1855, 700 soldiers under American General William S. Harney avenged the Grattan Massacre by attacking a Lakota village in Nebraska, killing about 100 men, women, and children. A series of short "wars" followed, and in 1862–1864, as refugees from the "Dakota War of 1862" in Minnesota fled west to their allies in Montana and Dakota Territory. Increasing illegal settlement after the American Civil War caused war once again.
The Black Hills were considered sacred by the Lakota, and they objected to mining. In 1868, the United States signed the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868, exempting the Black Hills from all white settlement forever. Four years later gold was discovered there, and prospectors descended on the area.
The attacks on settlers and miners were met by military force conducted by army commanders such as Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer. General Philip Sheridan encouraged his troops to hunt and kill the buffalo as a means of "destroying the Indians' commissary."[9]
The allied Lakota and Arapaho bands and the unified Northern Cheyenne were involved in much of the warfare after 1860. They fought a successful delaying action against General George Crook's army at the Battle of the Rosebud, preventing Crook from locating and attacking their camp, and a week later defeated the U.S. 7th Cavalry in 1876 at the Battle of the Little Bighorn, which the Lakota call the Greasy Grass Fight. Custer attacked a camp of several tribes, much larger than he realized. Their combined forces killed 258 soldiers, wiping out the entire Custer battalion, and inflicting more than 50% casualties on the regiment.
Their victory over the U.S. Army would not last, however. The US Congress authorized funds to expand the army by 2500 men. The reinforced US Army defeated the Lakota bands in a series of battles, finally ending the Great Sioux War in 1877. The Lakota were eventually confined onto reservations, prevented from hunting buffalo and forced to accept government food distribution.
Today, the Lakota are found mostly in the five reservations of western South Dakota: Rosebud Indian Reservation (home of the Upper Sičhánǧu or Brulé), Pine Ridge Indian Reservation (home of the Oglála), Lower Brule Indian Reservation (home of the Lower Sičhaŋǧu), Cheyenne River Indian Reservation (home of several other of the seven Lakota bands, including the Mnikȟówožu, Itázipčho, Sihásapa and Oóhenumpa), and Standing Rock Indian Reservation (home of the Húŋkpapȟa), also home to people from many bands. Lakota also live on the Fort Peck Indian Reservation in northeastern Montana, the Fort Berthold Indian Reservation of northwestern North Dakota, and several small reserves in Saskatchewan and Manitoba. Their ancestors fled to "Grandmother's [i.e. Queen Victoria's] Land" (Canada) during the Minnesota or Black Hills War.
Large numbers of Lakota live in Rapid City and other towns in the Black Hills, and in metro Denver. Lakota elders joined the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO) to seek protection and recognition for their cultural and land rights. It is a little known fact that some of the American Sign Language came from the Lakota Sioux[citation needed].
Government[edit]
United States[edit]
Legally[10] and by treaty a semi-autonomous "nation" within the United States, the Lakota Sioux are represented locally by officials elected to councils for the several reservations and communities in the Dakotas, Minnesota, Nebraska. They are represented on the state and national level by the elected officials from the political districts of their respective states and Congressional Districts.[11] Band or reservation members living both on and off the individual reservations are eligible to vote in periodic elections for that reservation. Each reservation has a unique local government style and election cycle based on its own constitution[12][13] or articles of incorporation. Most follow a multi-member tribal council model with a chairman or president elected directly by the voters.- The current President of the Oglala Sioux, the majority tribe of the Lakota located primarily on the Pine Ridge reservation, is Theresa Two Bulls.
- The President of the Sičháŋǧu Lakota at the Rosebud reservation is Rodney M. Bordeaux.
- The Chairman of the Standing Rock reservation, which includes peoples from several Lakota subgroups including the Húŋkpapȟa, is Charles W. Murphy.
- The Chairman of the Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe at the Cheyenne River reservation, comprising the Mnikȟówožu, Itázipčho, Sihá Sápa, and Oóhenuŋpa bands of the Lakota, is Kevin Keckler.
- The Chairman of the Lower Brule Sioux Tribe, which is home to the Lower Sicangu Lakota, is Michael Jandreau.
Canada[edit]
There are nine bands of Dakota and Lakota in Manitoba and southern Saskatchewan, with a total of 6,000 registered members. They are recognized as First Nations but are not considered "treaty Indians". As First Nations they receive rights and entitlements through the Indian and Northern Affairs Canada department. However as they are not recognized as treaty Indians, they did not participate in the land settlement and natural resource revenues.[15] The Dakota rejected a $60 million land rights settlement in 2008.[16]Independence movement[edit]
See also: Republic of Lakotah
Beginning in 1974, some Lakota activists have taken steps to become independent from the United States, in an attempt to form their own fully independent nation. These steps have included drafting their own "declaration of continuing independence" and using Constitutional and International Law to solidify their legal standing.A 1980 U.S. Supreme Court decision awarded $122 million to eight bands of Sioux Indians as compensation for land claims, but the court did not award land. The Lakota have refused the settlement.[17]
In September 2007, the United Nations passed a non-binding Resolution on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. Canada,[18] the United States, Australia and New Zealand refused to sign.[19]
On December 20, 2007, a group of Lakota under the name Lakota Freedom Delegation traveled to Washington D.C. to announce a withdrawal of the Lakota Sioux from all treaties with the United States government.[20] These activists had no standing under any elected BIA tribal government. The group claimed official standing under the traditional Lakota Treaty Councils, representing the traditional Tiyóšpaye (matriarchal family units). These have been the traditional form of Lakota governance.
Longtime political activist Russell Means said, "We have 33 treaties with the United States that they have not lived by." He was part of the delegation's declaring the Lakota a sovereign nation with property rights over thousands of square miles in South Dakota, North Dakota, Nebraska, Wyoming and Montana.[21] The group stated that they do not act for or represent the tribal governments set up by the BIA or those Lakota who support the BIA system of government.[22]
The Lakota Freedom Delegation did not include any elected leaders from any of the tribes. Russell Means had previously run for president of the Oglala Sioux tribe and twice been defeated. Several elected BIA tribal governments issued statements distancing themselves from the independence declaration, with some saying they were watching the independent movement closely.[23] Although some Indigenous nations and groups around the world made statements in support, no elected Lakota tribal governments endorsed the declaration.
In January 2008, the Lakota Freedom Delegation split into two groups. One group was led by Canupa Gluha Mani (Duane Martin Sr.). He is a leader of Cante Tenza, the traditional Strongheart Warrior Society, that has included leaders such as Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse. This group is called Lakota Oyate. The other group is called the "Republic of Lakotah" and is led by Russell Means. In December 2008, Lakota Oyate received the support and standing of the traditional treaty council of the Oglala Tiospayes.
Ethnonyms[edit]
The name Lakota comes from the Lakota autonym, Lakota "feeling affection, friendly, united, allied". The early French historic documents did not distinguish a separate Teton division, instead grouping them with other "Sioux of the West", Santee and Yankton bands.The names Teton and Tetuwan come from the Lakota name thítȟuŋwaŋ, the meaning of which is obscure. This term was used to refer to the Lakota by non-Lakota Sioux groups. Other derivations include: ti tanka, Tintonyanyan, Titon, Tintonha, Thintohas, Tinthenha, Tinton, Thuntotas, Tintones, Tintoner, Tintinhos, Ten-ton-ha, Thinthonha, Tinthonha, Tentouha, Tintonwans, Tindaw, Tinthow, Atintons, Anthontans, Atentons, Atintans, Atrutons, Titoba, Tetongues, Teton Sioux, Teeton, Ti toan, Teetwawn, Teetwans, Ti-t’-wawn, Ti-twans, Tit’wan, Tetans, Tieton, and Teetonwan.
Early French sources call the Lakota Sioux with an additional modifier, such as Scioux of the West, West Schious, Sioux des prairies, Sioux occidentaux, Sioux of the Meadows, Nadooessis of the Plains, Prairie Indians, Sioux of the Plain, Maskoutens-Nadouessians, Mascouteins Nadouessi, and Sioux nomades.
Notable Lakota[edit]
- Arthur Amiotte, Oglala artist, educator, curator, and author
- Black Elk (Heȟáka Sápa)
- Black Hawk, Sans Arc artist, medicine man
- Mary Brave Bird, Brulé author
- Nathan Chasing His Horse, actor, medicine man
- Chris Chavis (Tȟatȟáŋka), WWE wrestler
- Crazy Horse (Tȟašúŋke Witkó)
- Gall (Phizí) (c. 1840–1894)
- Kicking Bear, Oglala activist and warrior
- Lame Deer (Tȟáȟča Hušté), medicine man
- Kevin Locke (Tȟokéya Inážiŋ), Hunkpapa hoop dancer and flute player
- Karina Lombard, Lakota-descent actress
- Billy Mills, Oglala Olympic Gold Medalist
- Rain-in-the-Face (Ité Omáǧažu), Hunkpapa war chief who fought in the Battle of Little Bighorn
- Red Cloud (Maȟpíya Lúta)
- Red Shirt (Ógle Lúta)
- Sitting Bull (Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake), Hunkpapa chief
- Eddie Spears, Lower Brulé actor
- Michael Spears, Lower Brulé actor
- Spotted Tail (Siŋté Glešká), noted warrior and leader. Uncle of Crazy Horse.
- Moses Stranger Horse, Brulé artist
- Touch the Clouds (Maȟpíya Ičaȟtagye)
- John Two-Hawks, musician
Reservations[edit]
Lakota reservations recognized by the U.S. government include:
- Oglala (Pine Ridge Indian Reservation, South Dakota and Nebraska)
- Sicangu (Rosebud Indian Reservation, South Dakota)
- Hunkpapa (Standing Rock Reservation North Dakota and South Dakota)
- Mniconjou (Cheyenne River Sioux Reservation, South Dakota)
- Izipaco (Cheyenne River Sioux Reservation, South Dakota)
- Siha Sapa (Cheyenne River Sioux Reservation, South Dakota)
- Ooinunpa (Cheyenne River Sioux Reservation, South Dakota)
- Santee Indian Reservation, in Nebraska
- Crow Creek Indian Reservation in Central South Dakota
- Yankton Indian Reservation in Central South Dakota
- Flandreau Indian Reservation in Eastern South Dakota
- Lake Traverse Indian Reservation in Northeastern South Dakota and Southeastern North Dakota
- Lower Sioux Indian Reservation in Minnesota
- Upper Sioux Indian Reservation in Minnesota
- Shakopee-Mdewakanton Indian Reservation in Minnesota
- Prairie Island Indian Reservation in Minnesota
See also[edit]
Notes[edit]
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Pritzker 329
- ^ Pritzker, 328
- ^ "Lakota Winter Counts." Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. Retrieved 28 May 2012.
- ^ a b Liberty, Dr. Margot. "Cheyenne Primacy: The Tribes' Perspective As Opposed To That Of The United States Army; A Possible Alternative To 'The Great Sioux War Of 1876'". Friends of the Little Bighorn. Retrieved January 13, 2008.
- ^ Bray, Kinglsy M."Teton Sioux: Population History, 1655–1881." Nebraska History. Summer, 1994, pp. 169, 175
- ^ American FactFinder. Factfinder.census.gov. Retrieved on April 18, 2011.
- ^ The Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, University of Nebraska.
- ^ Brown, Dee (1950) Bury My Heart at Wounded KneeMacmillan ISBN 0-8050-6669-1, ISBN 978-0-8050-6669-2
- ^ Winona LaDuke, All Our Relations: Native Struggles for Land and Life, (Cambridge, MA: South End Press, 1999), 141.
- ^ a b The Indian Reorganization Act[dead link]
- ^ "> News > Oglala Sioux Tribe inaugurates Cecilia Fire Thunder". Indianz.Com. December 13, 2004. Retrieved January 26, 2012.
- ^ Official Site of the Rosebud Sioux Tribe[dead link]
- ^ Our Constitution & By-Laws[dead link]
- ^ "Indian Country Diaries . History". PBS. Retrieved January 26, 2012.
- ^ Ottawa rejects claims by Dakota, Lakota First Nations, CBC News, August 1, 2007
- ^ Dakota Nations reject $60.3 M settlement offer from Ottawa, The Brandon Sun, Jun 26, 2008
- ^ "Race: The Price of Penance". Time. May 8, 1989. Retrieved May 7, 2010.
- ^ "Canada votes 'no' as UN native rights declaration passes". CBCNews. September 13, 2007. "Canada's UN ambassador, John McNee, said Canada had "significant concerns" over the declaration's wording on provisions addressing lands and resources"
- ^ UBB Message - ReaderRant
- ^ "Descendants of Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse break away from US", Agence France-Presse news
- ^ Bill Harlan, "Lakota group secedes from U.S.", Rapid City Journal, December 20, 2007.
- ^ "Lakota group pushes for new nation", Argus Leader, Washington Bureau, December 20, 2007
- ^ "Lakota Sioux have NOT withdrawn from the US", DailyKOS
References[edit]
- Christafferson, Dennis M. (2001). "Sioux, 1930–2000". In R. J. DeMallie (Ed.), Handbook of North American Indians: Plains (Vol. 13, Part 2, pp. 821–839). W. C. Sturtevant (Gen. Ed.). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-16-050400-7.
- DeMallie, Raymond J. (2001a). "Sioux until 1850". In R. J. DeMallie (Ed.), Handbook of North American Indians: Plains (Vol. 13, Part 2, pp. 718–760). W. C. Sturtevant (Gen. Ed.). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-16-050400-7.
- DeMallie, Raymond J. (2001b). "Teton". In R. J. DeMallie (Ed.), Handbook of North American Indians: Plains (Vol. 13, Part 2, pp. 794–820). W. C. Sturtevant (Gen. Ed.). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-16-050400-7.
- Matson, William and Frethem, Mark (2006). Producers. "The Authorized Biography of Crazy Horse and His Family Part One: Creation, Spirituality, and the Family Tree". The Crazy Horse family tells their oral history and with explanations of Lakota spirituality and culture on DVD. (Publisher is Reelcontact.com)
- Parks, Douglas R.; & Rankin, Robert L. (2001). "The Siouan Languages". In R. J. DeMallie (Ed.), Handbook of North American Indians: Plains (Vol. 13, Part 1, pp. 94–114). W. C. Sturtevant (Gen. Ed.). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-16-050400-5.
- Pritzker, Barry M. A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0-19-513877-1.
- Ullrich, Jan. New Lakota Dictionary. Lakota Language Consortium. ISBN 0-9761082-9-1. (The most comprehensive dictionary of the language, the only dictionary reliable in terms of spelling and defining words.)
External links[edit]
 | Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Lakota |
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- NAHA – The Official Charity Helping The People Of The Lakota Sioux Tribes & Reservations on South Dakota
- The Official Lakota Language Forum
- Dakota Blues: The History of The Great Sioux Nation[dead link]
- Lakota Language Consortium
- Lakota Freedom Delegation to Withdraw from Treaties in DC 2007/12/14
- The Lakota Sioux Indians Declare Independence, Ibrahim Sediyani
- The Teton Sioux (Edward S. Curtis)
- Lakota Winter Counts a Smithsonian exhibit of the annual icon chosen to represent the major event of the past year
- Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe Official Website
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