GIRLS MATTER... #1BRising One Billion Rising- No More Excuses -No More Abuses

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MY PERSONAL INTRODUCTION...

Al-jazeera mayb owned by Qatar but we all know it... same as much of internet is owned by the democratic party members of USA and much of Canada's media owned by Liberals... etc.....we're smart, savvy, educated and we get it.... and every time we sign on to parttake of the internet.... WE ARE BEING TRACED, WATCHED AND OFTEN HACKED.... we get it... we got it in the late 90s... and sure as hell get it 2da... and that's ok....still Euronews, Global News Canada, Al-Jazeera, BBC and some CTV and CBC are balanced and fair....imho

But Al-jazeera has some incredible documentaries and news - like last nights 'inside' talks with Afghan/Iran and USA critic.... it was refreshing... just like Jonathan Noah is refreshing to Jon Stewart's masterpiece and Stephen Colbert still reigns supreme with a touch of jimmy kimmel and jimmy fallon and that late late British guru- Jason.... kinda fun and a bit kinky....

Article share- the world is divided in 2.... and population is winning over environment folks.... and the so-called 'civilized democratic industralized fair and each and all are free minded.... is being eradicated by harsh cruel reality..... hard parts of the world with their enormous population have taken over the world.... and where the USA and the party boys of UN ruled - there is a new world order on the cusp of Russia/China- it's those 3rd world countries that we tried 2 help since the 60s and 70s with their 17 children per family - thus eroding our global environment- while the 'old age hippie protesters and their vicious facism zeroed in on the industralized civilized nations..... they now find out it was the wong enemy.... and that's the truth folks.....

In Canada folks get their garbage back (regardless of how disabled and poor u are to barely afford a loaf of bread let alone the expensive 'clear and blue bags made mandatory'... whilst in the real world- India cannot STILL nor Pakistan nor much of Asias and Africas - DO NOT HAVE TOILETS.... AND ABILITY FOR CLEAN HEALTH HABITS... let alone saving the environment that the richest nations dump their electronic waste and all the global garbage - like waste from fracking etc... so seriously folks?? seriously???

EXAMPLE- Canada is calling a federal election October 19 2015- and each and every candidate is an incredible family person... as evidenced by their incredible children.... and every Prime Minister; regardless of the hate sheeeeet of liberal media and infighting spoilt vicious behaviour of all losers, our Prime Ministers have done a wonderful job for our Canada... and am old... and watched - and as a human rights and unionist community level - have ofen paid dearly - for wins and losses on basic humanity for disabled, health and safety, pay equity, equality, poor, aged, children, education and jobs. However, all have served us well - and we may move on- but Prime Minister Harper - u served us well... thank u...just like Martin, Chretien right back to Trudeau and Diefenbaker... imho...

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ISSUE 4 September 1995

Humanitarian Exchange Magazine

The Impact of Refugees on the Environment and Appropriate Responses

by Gill Shepherd, Forestry Programme, ODI

For rural populations in developing countries, the natural environment is intimately linked to economic welfare. Populations are dependent on their surroundings for water, food, shelter and medicine. Refugee influxes intensify normal ‘green’ environmental problems - those associated with over-exploitation of rural natural resources due to poverty, rising populations, weak property rights and inappropriate management.
Refugee impact on the environment
Refugee settlements often occur in environmentally sensitive areas. In Africa, refugees have therefore usually been settled in semi-arid, agriculturally marginal areas, or (as in the case of the Rwandese in Zaire) near national parks or forest reserves. Refugee camps tend to be large for both logistical and political reasons. These large camps have a more negative impact on the environment than would be the case if several considerably smaller camps, catering for the same total numbers, were set up. Furthermore, refugees often have to stay in their countries of asylum for extended periods, and the impact on the environment around camps may be prolonged. In the case of unique sites, such as the Virunga National Park, Zaire, the environmental impact of refugees may be irreversible.
The impact of environmental deterioration on refugees and refugee-affected populations
The impact of environmental deterioration on the refugees themselves is intense. Low-quality water affects the health of large numbers of people, in a situation where there is a high risk of infectious diseases multiplying rapidly. Deforestation gradually forces women and children to walk further for wood, putting women in particular in danger of physical assault. Children may have to miss school to help; cooking time is shortened, and drinking water not boiled. Refugees may have to sell part of their food rations in order to obtain the fuel needed to cook the remainder, contributing to increased levels of malnutrition.
Host populations also experience a similar deterioration in the quality of their environment, so that normally available materials and supplies for construction, consumption and fuel are short, and prices for fuel and food in local markets rise. Tensions inevitably result, since host populations are currently made to bear many of the costs of the arrival of refugees in their area without immediate compensation.
Lessons from the environmental impact of the Rwandan refugee camps in Ngara and Kivu
How best to handle the environmental impact of refugees has been an issue brought under the microscope by the Rwanda crisis, because of the ecological importance of the areas into which many of the refugees have had to flee. UNHCR, in particular, is now in the process of reviewing its response.
Deforestation rates
In all, 524,000 people fled to Benaco in the Ngara area, now constituting the second largest ‘town’ in Tanzania, after Dar-es-Salaam. In the first six months to November 1994, tree resources within 5km of the four Ngara camps had been all but expended. By June 1995, the standard radius for getting fuel was 10km or more from the notional centre-point. These are very rapid fuelwood depletion rates. In north Kivu, 850,000 refugees in four camps are located within easy walking distance of the Virunga National Park, and many go there daily to gather fuelwood.
Per capita fuelwood consumption estimates
UNHCR’s early estimates of per capita consumption rates were excessively low. The best commissioned study (ERM 1994) [1] found such widely varying estimates of per capita fuelwood consumption (from 5.86kg/person/day down to 0.22kg/person/day), that it decided to conduct its own survey. It found a daily per capita consumption among local people in Ngara of 2.32kg, and near Karagwe, where wood is less abundant, of 1.18kg (average: 1.75kg). Figures in the camps were higher with a figure of 2.23kg in the northern cluster, and 3.06kg in the southern cluster (average 2.64kg).
Taking a mean figure of 2.6kg, a specific gravity figure of 850kg: 1m³ (a figure based on ERM/CARE calculations) and a figure of 524,000 refugees in the Benaco area, then 1,603m³ a day is needed, or 585,095m³ a year. Mean annual increment in the area is likely to be around 1m³ per hectare, so sustainable off-take ought to spread the refugee demand over 585,095ha or 5,851km². If this area were a circle (the pattern of fuelwood use around population centres) with all 524,000 refugees at its centre, its radius would have to be at least 43km for sustainable off-take. Instead, all this use is concentrated within a radius of 5-10km. These figures take no account of the needs of local populations resident in the area before the refugees arrived.
Solutions
There are a variety of short- and longer-term solutions to the need for fuelwood provision on this scale, which were proposed by the agencies involved in the camps, including UNHCR, and by consultants. These are set out in the table on page 9, in descending order of urgency and usefulness.
The most urgent need is to keep per capita consumption of fuel low, and to make fuel available from a wide area and variety of sources so that refugees do not irreversibly damage the area immediately surrounding camps.
On the demand side, the biggest single reducer of per capita consumption of fuel is the provision of food in a quick-cooking form. Maize in the form of maize-meal rather than whole dry ‘popcorn’ maize, for example, takes six to eight times longer to cook. It is theoretically possible to save fuel through the use of fuel-efficient stoves as well, though stove programmes have a depressingly unsuccessful history. A far simpler technology, which greatly reduces fuel-use and cooking time, is the provision of large flat saucepan lids to refugees for covering boiling food and water (high altitude has been a factor in high fuel consumption rates in the Rwanda refugee situation. Cooking times are much slower in highland areas because the boiling point of water is lower).
On the supply side, the simplest way of reducing the impact of refugees (though it is often not politically possible), is to set up a larger number of smaller camps, rather than a tiny number of large ones, so that fuelwood collection is automatically spread over a larger area. If this is impossible, then it is essential for agencies to identify natural stands of forest or plantations, and to organise the delivery of fuelwood to the camps. As time goes by, other sources of fuel may be identified as well. In Tanzania, for instance, both peat and papyrus reeds constitute such sources. A range of other options are inappropriate in this context for the reasons set out in the chart (kerosene, charcoal, briquettes, solar cookers, stoves). At the same time, important trees around the camps (along water courses, large shade trees, etc) can be marked with white paint as not available for felling.
A further area which needs early consideration, from the environmental point of view, is the need for poles and timber. Current refugee shelters provide polythene sheeting, but no wood supports. These have to be cut from the surrounding area. Nor have the agencies themselves been blameless. UNHCR (1994) notes that the implementing agencies cut tens of thousands of poles within easy trucking distance for pit latrines, medical clinics etc. Tents for official purposes, and tent-pole provision, ought to be part of the agencies’ commitment to a refugee situation.
In the longer run, there are three further actions to be taken. Firstly, in the refugee-affected areas, tree-planting programmes with local villagers and with remaining refugees should be a priority.
Secondly, and this is more for future refugee situations than for restoring the environment in current ones, databases for countries in Africa and elsewhere likely to be involved in a refugee crisis in due course, need to be set up to document areas of ample fuelwood resources (if any) available for future need, border areas of each country most unsuitable for the establishment of a refugee camps, and those which ought to be avoided at all costs.
UNHCR’s planned response for the future
In 1995, an internal Working Group was set up to consider UNHCR’s current policy and practice towards the environment. The Group’s final report (an internal document dated July 1995) groups its chief concerns about current shortcomings as follows:

Conceptual concerns: sound environmental management is viewed as subordinate to the material and social needs of the refugees, rather than as an integral part of those needs. Environmental rehabilitation is seen as the task of other organisations.
Technical concerns: no clear guidance has been developed to allow selection of the most appropriate technical options in each situation.
Institutional concerns: no clear comprehensive environmental policies and plans have been developed.
Operational concerns: Environmental considerations are not incorporated systematically into UNHCR’s refugee assistance programmes.

The Working Group proposes that in future, more effective environmental planning in the context of refugee camps should be a primary duty of UNHCR and host governments; that both refugees and local populations should be involved in environmental planning of any projects which are instituted; that there should be coordination with other UN agencies and international NGOs and that development funds should be committed where environmental damage is extensive.
All things being equal, prevention of environmental deterioration is preferable to cure, and in many contexts cheaper too, provided that environmental costs have been internalised by UNHCR. This means giving the environment the same weight as water, health and nutrition in mainstream programming. Operationally, it means that the environment must be given a higher priority at two key phases:

During the emergency phase, fundamental decisions such as site selection and layout should be taken with environmental considerations in mind, and the emergency team should incorporate these skills.
During the ‘care and maintenance’ phase, environmental components should be integrated into programming and implementation, and guidance given on how this is to be effected.

The Working Group sets out three options for the future:

The No-Change Option. UNHCR would continue with the ad hoc approach to the environment it has adopted in the past. The Working Group regards this option as irresponsible and suggests that it risks damaging UNHCR’s credibility with host governments.
The Two-Pronged Option. UNHCR would focus on only two issues: systematic provision of fuel to refugees; and an environmental rehabilitation programme aimed at attracting development assistance funds to rehabilitate refugee-affected areas.
The Mainstreaming Option. This option would lead to the following activities: preventative measures during the emergency phase such as environmentally sound site-planning; changed construction practices and improvements in the sustainability of refugee housing; participation of refugees and local community in planning; fuel supply; controlled fuelwood extraction from forests and reforestation; the introduction and dissemination of fuel-efficient stoves, mills to grind food grains; environmental training, education and awareness building and environmental rehabilitation after repatriation. A user-friendly environmental Source-Book would be produced to provide guidance in all these areas.

Comparing the latter two options, the working group concludes that mainstreaming not only meets the demands of internationally-agreed environmental criteria more closely and is the more responsible, but that it is also more cost-effective. While, in the light of findings from the Rwanda crisis, some of the details of the mainstreaming approach might need to be modified, this is plainly the best way forward.
Under either scenario, environmental expenditure should be budgeted in the General Programme, otherwise it will continue to be seen as a ‘frill’ rather than as a core part of UNHCR’s work.
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[1] EMR 1994 Refugee inflow into Ngara and Karagwe districts, Tanzania. Environmental Impact Assessment November 1994. ERM for: Care International and the Overseas Development Administration.

Practice & Policy Notes

http://www.odihpn.org/humanitarian-exchange-magazine/issue-04/the-impact-of-refugees-on-the-environment-and-appropriate-responses

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FROM THE late 80s and 1990S....

The Refugee Crisis: Evaluating the Effects of Displaced Populations on the World’s Environment

By Jayna M. Smith

One of the greatest challenges facing public health officials today has been preparing for the health problems experienced by large populations displaced by natural or man-made disasters. Because the difficulties experienced in long- and short-term refugee situations are so diverse, a diversity of approaches in disease surveillance, control, and prevention is warranted. organizations across the world are currently working to discover which approach can best be used to solve the refugee problem. The Pan American Health Organization, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), and the United States Agency for International Development are just a few of the organizations that have produced reports and guidelines illustrating that appropriate, cost-effective disease prevention technology can be quickly applied in most situations that will impact the lives of the affected populations in a positive way. These efforts just underscore a common goal and commitment to a global health agenda that will inevitably improve the health status of people worldwide.

In the past ten years, public health emergencies involving refugees have occurred with greater and greater frequency. Many of these emergencies involved some degree of forced population migration, and almost all have been associated with severe food shortages and famine. Droughts and floods--the most common of the natural disasters--have been partially responsible, but the most common causes of these emergencies have been war and civil strife. Since 1984, the number of refugees dependent for their survival on some type of international assistance has more than doubled to a current estimate of about 17 million people--almost all in developing countries where local resources have been insufficient for providing prompt and adequate assistance.' There are nearly 1620 million displaced persons who are trapped within their countries by civil wars and are unable to cross borders to seek help. The ongoing and renewed conflicts in West Africa, Central Asia, and in North America and the Caribbean, are complicating humanitarian responses and blocking solutions to refugee problems while prolonging human suffering. This is definitely an unprecedented challenge to the public health community. Addressing the problems facing the world's refugees, returnees, and other victims of displacement by disasters requires a universal spirit and a shared effort among the international community.

How does one classify these disasters--natural and man-made-that have fueled the "refugee crisis"? One way is to describe the evolution of disasters in terms of a "trigger event" leading to "primary effects" and "secondary effects" on vulnerable groups . With rapid-onset naural disasters like earthquakes, the primary effects, deaths and injuries, may be high, but there are few secondary effects. With slow-onset natural disasters like droughts and man-made disasters such as war and civil strife, the secondary effects (i.e., decreased food availability, environmental damage, and population displacement) may lead to a higher delayed death toll than that of the initial event. Even though population displacement may result from numerous types of disasters, the two most common trigger events have been food deficits and war. These two events along with famine and population displacement have been linked risk factors for increased mortality in several of the world's areas.

The purpose of this paper is to describe the public health consequences of famine, war and civil strife, and population displacement in developing countries and to present recent recommendations on public health programs of importance. These programs have been implemented in the past for the purpose of aiding refugees in need of outside help. At one point in time however, there was controversy over just who would be included as a "refugee". For example, in 1951, the United Nations Convention defined a refugee as "Any person who owing to a well founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion is outside of his nationality and is unable, or owing to fear, is unwilling to avail himself in the protection of that country, or who, not having a nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual residence, is unable, or having such fear is unwilling to return to it. ,3 In 1969 this definition was expanded to include persons fleeing from war, civil disturbance, and violence of any kind.

These definitions, however, exclude people who leave their birth country to find "economic betterment", as well as groups who flee from their homes for the above reasons but remain within the borders of their country of origin. There are few programs or international regulations that cover these internally displaced populations. Yet, it is estimated that more than half of all displaced persons world-wide are living within the borders of their own country .4 Of these few programs that do cover the internally displaced, the UNHCR has included asylum-seekers and returnees in their efforts to aid refugees. The UNHCR defines the internally displaced as those who may have been forced to flee their homes because their lives and/or liberty were at risk. But unlike refugees, they either could not or do not want to cross an international border. They may legally fall under the sovereignty of their own government but the government is unable or unwilling to protect them. Asylum-seekers are persons who have left their countries of origin and have applied for recognition as refugees in other countries and whose applications are still pending by the appropriate government. The largest group of asylum-seekers come from the industrialized nations in Europe and North America. Lastly are returnees who were of concern to UNHCR while outside of their country and upon their return remain so for a limited of time while UNHCR assists in their reintegration and monitors their well-being. As mentioned before, many public health emergencies associated with refugees involve famine within the area of concern. Famine does not just arise from problems with food production. Droughts and crop infestations may trigger famine, but lack of enough food for consumption may be due to economic collapse and loss of purchasing power in some sections of the population (i.e., the Indian famine of 1972). Other causes of famine have included disruption of food production and marketing by armed conflict (i.e., Biafra in 1968, Sudan in 1988, and Somalia in 1999) and widespread civil disturbances.

Famine is usually caused by the amplification of a preexisting condition characterized by widespread poverty, intractable debt, underemployment, and high malnutrition prevalence. Under these conditions, a huge percentage of the population may experience starvation routinely. when additional burdens related to the availability of food come up, starvation tends to occur rapidly. In recent years, frequent crop failures in Ethiopia, Somalia, and Sudan and have been attributed to progressive deterioration of the environment, including deforestation, desertification, and poor agricultural practices.

Populations that do experience famine may or may not displace themselves in order to improve food availability. Male family members may migrate to cities or neighboring countries to seek employment. But during a full-scale famine, whole families and villages may flee to other areas in desperate search of food. In most of the major population displacements within the past 20 years, however, people have been forced to flee because of fear for their physical security caused by war or civil strife. Famine in the absence of violence has generated few of the world's refugees. When these populations are forced to migrate in mass, they usually end up in camps or urban slums characterized by poor sanitation, overcrowding, sub-standard housing, and limited access to health services.

Problems associated with refugees occur world-wide. The refugee crisis is unique to no one country. Areas hit hardest by this phenomenon and showing the greatest need for assistance include Rwanda, Central Asia, and North America and the Caribbean. In each case it is evident that the effects of displaced populations have affected several different people and nationalities in several different ways.

The case of Rwanda dates back to 1994 when ethnic conflict was at the root of that year's war and genocide. Nearly one million people lost their lives while half of the country's 7.5 million population was uprooted during the fighting. More than 2.4 million fled to neighboring countries, mostly the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), and the United Republic of Tanzania where they were given asylum and accommodated in refugee camps.'

The current situation in Rwanda is quite shaky. The Government of National Unity, in place since the 1994 genocide, has expressed the wish for all Rwandans to return so that the country can begin rebuilding. There have been rehabilitation activities to start in most areas; but the northwest of the country remains insecure and inhospitable to rehabilitation efforts. While it is the most fertile part of the country, almost no food crops are being cultivated in the northwest--resulting in food shortages and poverty in the region and inflation in the rest of the country.

These people who are in need of protection and assistance are helped by twp specific organizations--the UNHCR and the DRC. The UNHCR helps nearly 35,000 refugees: persons from the DRC who are accommodated in two camps, some 800 Burundian refugees housed in Kigeme, and urban refugees on an individual basis--all in addition to the 2.8 million returnees . Most refugees from this area are women, children, and elderly who require special attention. The UNHCR works to protect and provide material assistance to refugees from the DRC, Burundi, and other countries and helps the Government identify and implement durable solutions for the refugees, including repatriation, local integration, or resettlement.

Different from the civil strife, refugee-producing situation in Rwanda is the environmental degradation and the ensuing competition for scarce natural resources that is at the root of Central Asia's refugee crisis. Some of the clearest examples of environmentally induced migration and displacement can be found in the former Soviet states of Central Asia. The UNHCR reports that in the first half of the 1990's, around 270,000 people in that region where displaced for such reasons .

Many of Central Asia's problems are created by decades of agricultural exploitation, industrial pollution, and overgrazing. Under the agricultural system practiced by the Soviet authorities, Massive amounts of chemicals were used to control weed growth and to replace nutrients in the soil that had been lost. The residues

of these chemicals are now poisoning the region's land and water and contaminating the food chain. This inevitably has made it increasingly difficult for some populations to remain in their usual residences.

Furthermore, dust from the dried-up bed of the Aral Sea, a large lake situated between Kazakstan and Uzbekistan, containing large quantities of agricultural and industrial chemicals is now carried long distances by the wind. This has contributed to further pollution and desertification of the land. The economic and social consequences of this happening have been substantial. There has occurred a dramatic decline in agricultural production, an increase in the price of food, and declining health standards among the local population. Since 1992, nearly 100,000 people have left the Aral Sea area as a result of these problems. More prominent and mobile groups such as the Ethnic Russians have been the first to move while members of poorer and less mobile groups who lack the social connections to establish new homes elsewhere have been left behind. Tackling the issue of environmental degradation and displacement in Central Asia is not an easy task. The problem is extremely deep-rooted and was kept hidden for so long that it may be too late for effective remedial action to take place. Also, the Governments in the region are confronted with many other pressing issues and may lack the ability and resources to address the problem in a systematic manner.

The cases within North America and the Caribbean are quite different from those in Central Asia and Rwanda. Neither civil strife nor environmental degradation serves as the root of the two's refugee problem. Both North America and the Caribbean have seen in increase in their numbers of refugees by way of North America hosts more than 1.3 million refugees and other persons of concern to UNHCR. The United States and Canada receive asylumseekers from nearly every refugee-producing country in the world. During the year of 1997, over 100,000 people applied for asylum in these two countries alone. In that same year, some 70,000 refugees were admitted to the to the United States (while Canada accepted 10,000) for resettlements

Since the resolution of the 1994 Haitian refugee crisis, the Caribbean has been relatively calm. Less than 2,000 refugees are still in need of a long-lasting solution in the Caribbean--most of

the numbers come from the 1,000 African refugees in Cuba and 600 Haitian refugees in the Dominican Republic. But there is still a potential for renewed refugee prevalence with the Caribbean becoming a destination and transit point for asylum-seekers from other areas of the continent. Moreover, competing priorities for added resources and help prevent such organizations as the UNHCR from maintaining a permanent presence in the Caribbean. Help is given erratically between the Caribbean nations of Antigua and Barbuda, the Bahamas, Grenada, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica, and Tobago.

The UNHCR has been extremely active in its efforts to better the conditions of those refugees remaining in the Dominican Republic and in Cuba. Most of the refugees in Cuba are Africans who came to Cuba years ago for schooling. For these refugees, the solution includes both voluntary repatriation and resettlement. Available to refugees through the Centro de Trabajo Social Dominicano (CTSD) are self-sufficiency projects for Haitian refugees in the Dominican Republic with the objective of ending direct assistance to these refugees in 1999.

one ramification of the "refugee crisis" shared by the aforementioned populations is the prevalence of communicable diseases which, in nearly all cases, has been the cause of the high morbidity and mortality rates. Measles, diarrhea diseases, and even malaria are the primary causes of morbidity and mortality among refugee and displaced populations. Other communicable diseases, i.e., meningitis, hepatitis, and typhoid fever have been observed among refugee populations. But, their contribution to the growing prevalence of disease among refugees has been relatively small.

Densely populated camps with poor sanitation, unclean water supplies, and low-quality housing all contribute to the quick spread of disease in refugee camps. Interaction between malnutrition and infection in these populations has also contributed to the high rates of bleakness and fatality.

Contracting the measles and diarrhea diseases are the most common in populations of displaced persons. Measles outbreaks have been one of the leading causes of death among the camp's children. In addition, measles have contributed to high malnutrition rates among those who have survived the initial illness. Diarrheal diseases have become a major problem primarily because of the inadequacy of the water supply and the poorly maintained sanitation facilities. Among Caribbean refugees, diarrhea diseases were responsible for 22.3% of mortality among children less than five years of age during a 3-year period.

Malaria and meningitis are serious illnesses that also affect large numbers of the refugee population. Malaria is a major health problem in many areas that host large populations. Malnutrition and anemia conditions that are common among refugees may be directly related to persistent malaria infection or may compound the effects of malaria and lead to high mortality. Malaria is the leading cause of morbidity among adult refugees and in 1990 caused 18% of all deaths and 25% of deaths among children less than 5 years of age. Public health officials find malaria to be of particular concern when the refugee population has traveled through or into an area of higher endemicity than its region of origin.

Overcrowding and practically no access to medical care are contributing factors in outbreaks of meningococcal meningitis among displaced populations. Although children less than 5 years of age are at the greatest risk for meningitis, meningococcal meningitis also occurs among older children and adults, mostly in densely populated areas.

Although these diseases are of the greatest concern for public health officials being major causes of morbidity and mortality, other health problems deserve the attention of the public health practitioners in these settings.

Injuries related to armed conflict and psychological problems relating to war, persecution, and the flight of refugees have been inadequately quantified. In recent reports on refugees in Rwanda, 8% of deaths during a two-month period were attributed to trauma. Sixty percent of these trauma-related deaths were caused by shootings by armed soldiers. other reports support the existence of high rates of physical disabilities caused by war injuries in some refugee camps.

Few published reports refer to sexually transmitted diseases (STD) in displaced populations. There is no evidence, however, that incidence is any higher or lower in these areas than in nonrefugee populations. Moreover, practically no data exist on the prevalence of HIV infection or on rates of transmission in these populations. many of the large displaced populations of the world have fled to countries where HIV prevalence rates are high or are already located in such areas.

Where then public health officials and refugee-concerned organizations begin to approach problems associated with these displaced populations? Between refugees rights, world health epidemics, and environmental degradation there is much difficult in deciding which deserves primary attention. Most organizations have approached the issue by first responding to the needs of Refugees, . They most certainly vary from one place to another depending on the stage of the refugee program. UNHCR, for example, characterizes these stages into three phases--emergency, care and maintenance, durable solutions.

During an emergency situation, the refugees' immediate welfare is a primary concern. Shelter, food, and security are the main issues that need to be addressed. Although there is often little time to find an ideal location for the camp-site, efforts to contain the refugees' impact lessen the burden placed on the local population and decrease possible friction between the two groups. Despite of the best plans, however, several camps have been established in environmentally sensitive zones such as water catchment areas or national parks. Although action is usually taken to reduce the damage, such camps have long-lasting, sometimes irreparable effects on the environment.

The arrival of a huge influx of refugees inevitably places intense pressure on the environment of the host country. Local deforestation, soil erosion, water contamination, and depletion are greatly increased by refugees who suffer themselves from the environmental impacts of their activities. Refugee-related environmental problems have become serious both in type and extent. People's lives depend on the quality of the surrounding environment. In a refugee situation, excessive damage to the environment not only causes deterioration of refugees' welfare but also leads to competition with local communities over scarce resources.

It is difficult to scale the problem of environmental degradation caused by refugees. Estimates suggest that rehabilitation costs of degraded forest and savannah in sub-Suharan Africa, for example, are in the area of $500 per hectare. In Africa alone, environmental rehabilitation of refugee camps could cost as much as $150 million a year." Visible evidence of environmental degradation is most obvious in long-standing asylum countries such as Kenya and Sudan. Land surrounding the refugee camps has been stripped of trees and vegetation. In these situations, many refugees have to resort to walking up to 12 kilometers in search of water and firewood.

In December 1996, more than 600,000 refugees from Burundi and Rwanda were housed in the Kagera region in North-west Tanzania. More than 1,200 tons of firewood was consumed each day--a total of 570 square kilometers of forest were affected. In some cases, the presence of refugees may temporarily confuse the issued of land ownership and the right of access, leading to large-scale illegal logging. Refugees can also be used as a labor force for business engaged in manufacturing charcoal, or similar activities. This makes them an easy scapegoat for any environmental damage.

Some public health and environmental officials have adopted several approaches in response to theses immediate concerns. These approaches include incorporating environmental concerns in every stage of its operations. Sound camp planning and management are among the most important considerations of any refugee-returnee program. Specific attention is given to ensuring that potential environmental impacts are kept to a minimum through site surveys and the development of plans which take into account such factors as road construction, site clearance, drainage systems, and the construction of shelter facilities and other buildings. Another consideration is the need to reduce the level of natural resource consumption to a minimum by ensuring that refugees are provided with food, water, firewood, and building materials. This is, however, quite expensive and not always effective.

Refugee crises are not going to disappear. The environment will remain at risk. Many of the earth's natural resources are already suffering degradation and depletion; land resources are coming under greater pressures; fresh water is an increasingly scarce commodity. The sudden and concentrated demands which refugees commonly place on such resources only aggravate the situation.

Public health officials have an important role to play in creating long-lasting solutions to such situations. Together with organizations like UNHCR, an important coordination role in safeguarding the lives of millions of people and giving them hope for the future will be fulfilled. In addition, by caring for the environment, it contributes to the well being of local and national environments. This is an issue that goes a long way to ensuring that governments will be prepared to offer asylum to

refugees in times of need. This role is, therefore, of great importance being that it acts as a mediator between addressing human needs and the welfare of the environment.

Through approaches such as these, we can gradually eliminate some of the dilemmas which refugees face each day. We can help then build more secure futures for themselves and their families. working together, we can help individual refugees in Rwanda, Central Asia, North America and the Caribbean, as well as in other countries, to rebuild their lives and to contribute to a sustainable future.

1. The Center for Disease Control Prevention Guidelines, 1999.

2. World Health Statistics Quarterly 44:171-81, 1991.

3. United Nations High Commissioner for refugees. Convention and Protocol relating to the Status of refugees. Geneva, 1968.

4. U.S. Committee for refugees. World refugee Survey--1988 in review. Washington, D.C., 1989.

5. D'Souza F. Who is a refugee? Definitions and assistance. Disasters 1981;5:1473-5

6. Funding & Donor Relations, 1999 Global Appeal.

7. Center for Disease Control. Famine affected, refugee, and displaced populations. Recommendations for public health issues. 1992;41:1-76.

8. Environment and migration: the case of Central Asia (The State of the World's Refugees--A Humanitarian Agenda , December 1997)

9. Funding & Donor Relations,1999 Global Appeal/ North America The Caribbean

10. Toole MJ, Waldman RJ. Prevention of excess mortality in refugee and displaced populations in developing countries. JAMA 1990;263:3296-302.

11. CDC Hurwitz ES. Malaria among newly arrived refugees , 19791980. In Alegra DT, Nieburg P, Grabe M, eds. Emergency refugee health care--a chronicle of the Khmer refugee-assistance operation 1979-1980;43-7

12. CDC. Toole M, trip report, September 1991.

13. Where have all the trees gone? (110, winter 1997).

https://web.stanford.edu/class/e297c/trade_environment/health/hrefugee.html

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The Global Refugee Crisis

by Kim Bradford-Watts
(Osaka Gakuin Univ., Kyoto Univ. of Foreign Studies, Kyoto Inst. of Technology, Kyoto Tachibana Womens' Univ., Ryukoku Univ.)

Abstract

Introducing complex issues about the global refugee crisis allows teachers and students to consider the nature of, and interrelationships between, a number of global issues. Information concerning the global refugee crisis can be presented to students of all ages and language proficiency levels. This lecture provided a brief discussion of some concerns, and suggestions for raising global refugee concerns in EFL classrooms. In this paper, teaching suggestions appear where relevant to the issues being described, and the focus on teaching for age levels from children to university-age reflects the interest expressed by session participants.

Keywords: Refugee concerns, global issues education, refugee awareness, global displacement

Rationale

There are several compelling reasons for teaching refugee issues in foreign language classrooms. One reason is that about 45% of the world's twenty million or so refugees are in Asia (UNHCR, 2003). Morever, 2001 MEXT reforms stress the necessity of develop ing flexible and critical thinking abilities among Japanase, and improving their ability to understand and interact with the world around them. This article will point out ways that teaching about refugee issues can foster critical thinking skills, greater cultural understanding and an ability to discuss complex issues. Teaching about refugee issues is also timely: In the latest issue of Refugees, a magazine produced by the UNHCR, Wilkinson (2003) states that in UN donor countries:

[the] movement of real refugees, asylum seekers, economic migrants, the uncertainty of future terror attacks, the global reach of the [human] traffickers and smugglers, efforts by developed countries to tighten their border security and immigration procedures, combined to produce a volatile cocktail of apprehension, worry, and at times, xenophobia. (Wilkinson, 2003, p. 9)

After the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, the USA accepted only 26,000 refugees for resettlement, vastly less than the 70,000 quota figure. These were also less than the 2000 figures, when the USA accepted 72,000 refugees for resettlement. Worldwide, the UNHCR recorded a 56% drop in refugee resettlement in 2001. Japan, not a country famous for accepting refugees, approved only 26 resettlements in 2001, as compared to 140 in 2000. Further terrorist activities will also, therefore, adversely influence responses to refugees seeking resettlement, as well as to responses to developing crises.
The role that the UN is playing in terms of refugee "protection" is changing due to pressures from donor countries, and debate continues as to the status of internally displaced persons within the framework of the UNHCR. The nature of conflict has also changed in the post-cold war era, and responses in neighboring "safe" countries are even less enthusiastic than previously. The UNHCR, and increasingly, other NGOs, are finding their field of operation not outside, but in, zones of conflict, now making them targets of terrorist acts.
Furthering the role of "protectors", agencies now believe that relief and development should be pursued simultaneously, and are thus also funding and enabling both programs for development, such as vaccination programs for refugee children, and programs for post conflict repatriation, reintegration, rehabilitation and reconstruction. These "4R's" are, according to Wilkinson (2003), "intended to eliminate one of the most problematic and persistent faultlines in humanitarian operations – the gap in many operations between emergency assistance provided by organizations such as UNHCR and funds to launch and sustain long-term development" (p 14). Thus, these kinds of programs both prepare and encourage refugees to return home and, with support, to rebuild their lives.

[ p. 32 ]
Issues

The following are brief descriptions of just some of the issues that may be incorporated into lessons about the world refugee crisis. They are not presented in any specific order, as each has links to the others. Each will vary according to the particular crisis selected for study, and generalizations cannot be made at any level, even between populations in refugee camps established in the same region during the same crisis.

Teaching about refugees

The UNHCR site has a number of resources, for example the Lego poster series (UNHCR., 1994-1997), geared toward teaching children about refugees, and promoting empathy with those who are forced to leave their homes. These can also be adapted for use with older students. A unit for children would certainly not incorporate much more than the fact that some people leave their homes because they are afraid, sometimes going to refugee camps or other countries to be safe. If teaching children, stories and pictures of children's lives in a refugee camp, like Kakuma camp in Kenya, can lead to a discussion of types of games, types of food and food preparation methods, schooling, and other areas of interest to children. The objective is to learn about real people in other parts of the world, and how, although some things are different, people are just like us no matter where they live. Teachers need to ensure that children can voice their fears, be assured, and discuss places that are safe for children. On the UNHCR site there are also stories and pictures of people engaged in activities in camps and animals of the region created by refugee children, and these can be used for vocabulary building, art projects, and story-telling in class.

Definition and causes

Except when teaching children, it is important to begin any teaching about refugees by clarifying the definition of refugee under international conventions, and the implications of being granted refugee status. Using this definition, students can begin to formulate an understanding of the various problems experienced by displaced populations under study. They can then explore the "push" factors of persecution and conflict that lead individuals and groups to abandon homes and livelihoods in search of safety.
People may be given status as refugees if they have crossed an international border and face "credible fear of persecution" if they return home. However, in the event of large numbers of people fleeing over an international border quickly and in large numbers, they are often given status as prima facie refugees, which generally leaves them with no papers, limiting mobility and the ability to seek employment outside the refugee camp, and so, effectively, confining them to the area of the camp.
Internally displaced persons (IDPs) have fled their homes, but have not crossed an international border, so are not guaranteed the same protections as those who have crossed an international border. The UNHCR is attempting to expand its role as a protector to IDPs, but successful cases of such interventions have been limited.
There are a number of areas in which human rights issues are of concern in the study of refugee issues: abuses lead to individuals, families or communities leaving homes and livelihoods, becoming displaced or refugees; may be experienced by those who have become displaced; may be experienced by refugees; and may be experienced in the process of, or as a result of, repatriation or resettlement. Successive experience of human rights abuse may force individuals or groups to flee repeatedly. Eastley (2004, pp. 15 - 21) presents two lesson plans aimed at raising awareness of human rights in EFL classes. These two lessons should be considered essential background for any students studying about the refugee crisis.
Education can be introduced as it relates to other human rights. The Right to Education is Article 26 of the Declaration of Human Rights. Implications of the Right to Education can be explored with respect to the breakdown of systems of education in warfare/complex emergencies, the provision of education in refugee camps, which may be sporadic, gendered, or withheld for political purposes, and the importance of education in community rehabilitation.
Issues affecting children may be discussed with respect to the Convention on the Rights of the Child, e.g. the effects on children of warfare and complex emergencies, as well as the experience of living as a refugee. Another related issue that can be addressed here is that of child soldiers.
There are a number of sites of conflict which may be explored in the study of refugee issues: conflicts leading to displacement of populations; conflict in and/or around areas settled by IDPs; conflict in and/or around refugee camps; and conflict in the process of, or upon, repatriation or resettlement. The effect of conflicts on supply of basic needs is particularly important in discussions which may arise about famine, depending on the case selected by teachers or learners, such as the Ethiopian famine in 1984, or those in Sudan in 1998 and 1999. Teachers need to ensure that students can access a large number of primary and secondary sources to become aware of the multiplicity of causes of conflict in any situation.
Teachers of junior high school age students can incorporate the definition of refugees, lessons about human rights, narratives of the journey from persecution, and artwork illustrating the narratives, into the curriculum through a case study of "The lost boys of Sudan" (www.unicef.org/sowc96/closboys.htm), and Kakuma camp in Kenya, otherwise known as "The Children's Camp" (UNHCR., n.d-e). The UNHCR website offers many primary materials suitable to learners of this age, relating to the journeys undertaken by the, mainly, boys from Sudan to the Kakuma camp. Such a unit may lead to the examination of other cases of human rights abuse, or to a discussion of ijime [bullying] in Japanese schools. Any unit focusing on this kind of subject matter will also satisfy calls by MEXT for incorporating "moral education" into the classroom.
In using a case study approach such as this, class members will learn empathy, human rights, critical analyses of the causes leading to children fleeing their homes, an awareness of the geography of a region, aspects of culture, such as games, food and food preparation methods, roles of children in the camps, education, and storytelling, possibly supported by art projects. This lesson could be conducted in a traditional classroom, but the possibility exists to use the CALL classroom for students to prepare and share multimedia presentations, in compliance with Point 2 (Establish a Learning Environment for the New Generation) of the first of the Seven Priority Strategies identified in The Rainbow Plan – The Education Reform Plan for the 21st Century, proposed to "improve classrooms in order to be able to conduct IT classes" (MEXT, 2001). All materials must, however, be selected with some sensitivity to the concerns that students may feel at this age, and activities should be designed to elicit such concerns and reassure students.

[ p. 33 ]
The role of the UN and it's related organizations

Weiss & Collins (2000) define the role of the UN as "to maintain order in the international system of states while facilitating change for those states or people for whom the status quo is a life sentence of impoverishment or injustice" (p. 21). A course highlighting refugee issues can focus on any one of several areas, such as the study of the UN and its related organizations in response to political and economic shifts of power; the nature and development of the charters and conventions of the UN, including the 1946 Constitution of the International Refugee Organization, the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and the 1954 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, the UN's developing role and history of peacekeeping/peace-building, and the UN's function in promoting human rights.

The nature and functions of various institutions, including NGO's

NGOs vary widely in size, scope and raison d'être, and tend to play the role of advocacy and solidarity for the IDPs and / or refugees. As can be seen in Table 1, the number of UNHCR partner NGOs increased dramatically in the period 1983 - 1995. The UNHCR currently has over 600 NGOs working as partners in various projects worldwide.

Table 1. Increase in UNHCR partner NGOs, 1983-1995. (Source: UNHCR, 1997).

Year 1983 1991 1993 1994 1995

International NGOs 30 72 127 124 128

Local NGOs 20 193 291 318 336

NGOs generally have a less hierarchical power structure than UN and government-sponsored organizations. They are often involved in both development and emergency operations, remaining in areas of conflict when international organizations pull out. They are often also a source of "first contact" information for international organizations. Table 2 lists some of the major international UNHCR partner NGOs.

Table 2. Major international UNHCR partner NGOs. (Adapted from UNHCR,1997)
 Name of Organization                    Date Founded     Approximate Average Annual Level of Funding (USD)
 International Rescue Committee (IRC)    1933             22 million
 CARE International (Belgium & Canada)   Aftermath of WWII   12.2 million
 OXFAM                                   1942                 7.2 million
 MSF                                     1971                 7 million
 Lutheran World Federation               1947                 7 million
 Adventist Dev. and Relief Agency (ADRA) 1956                 5 million
 Norwegian Refugee Council               1946                 4.2 million
 Save the Children Fund                  1932                 4 million
Teachers of high school age students may wish students to conduct research into and present about the role or activities of the UNHCR or other NGOs ctive in refugee issues. Groups of students can select an organization, a region, or a crisis, and research and analyze from that viewpoint. Students may be able to find a great deal of information available on the Internet, and may also be able to ask questions to the organizations via email. Presentation may be through poster sessions, or multi-media sessions in the CALL lab.

[ p. 34 ]
Health

When a large influx of refugees crosses a border unexpectedly, camps are established without much pre-planning. Such hastily constructed facilities often suffer from problems of overcrowding, poor sanitation, and contagious diseases, such as cholera or typhoid. Other health problems prevalent in refugee populations include: skin infections, STDs, and psychological illnesses associated with trauma. Injuries due to violence, which may have been inflicted prior to entering camp, or while in the camp, are common. Women, children, and the aged, in particular, frequently suffer from the effects of malnutrition.
Cooper and Herrman (2003) report that in camps established in Gbarnga and Zorzor as a response to the 2003 Liberia emergency, there was "a lack of food and heath care and high levels of child malnutrition" (p. 8), and due to the nature of the conflict, injuries as a result of violence were common. This situation requires that health care be targeted towards primary, rather than preventative care. They also note the "general signs of fear and despair" (p. 8). Additionally, discussing the situation amongst long-term refugees living in camps, Rogge (1992, in Maynard, 1999) describes the problems associated with "Displaced Persons Apathy" in Cambodian camps, where feelings of alienation and reliance on handouts led to reduced self-respect and resourcefulness. Practices such as gambling, prostitution, and alcoholism contributed to mental illness and decreased the decision-making abilities of residents of camps.
Study and discussion of case studies such as these is particularly apt for health, nursing, medical, psychology, or dental students at the university level. One way to highlight these issues would be to begin with a Dictogloss to introduce some of the health problems typically experienced by refugees. Next an example of a design of a refugee camp may be provided to students. A jigsaw reading or listening exercise may also be provided to highlight potential areas of concern with respect to provision of health services. Students could then work in pairs or groups to redesign the camp to minimize health risks and maximize access to care.

Resources

Issues which can be considered in this category include economic concerns at all levels; environmental concerns; concerns of access to conflict regions, to IDP's, to refugee camps, and to resources within camps; gender concerns; clan/class/caste concerns; concerns of or about organizational aspects of humanitarian action of international organizations, costs involved in establishing and maintaining a refugee camp; the economy of a refugee camp (formal and informal); and the costs of repatriation/resettlement of refugees.
Hyndman (2000) characterizes women as being "both inside and outside the humanitarian project of the refugee camp" (p 91). This is because many refugee households are headed by women due to separation from or death of male family members in warfare or complex emergencies. Women thus bear the responsibility for caring for older and younger family members, and often also assume responsibility for the care of children separated from their families. However, women are less likely to speak the language of aid workers, or have access to jobs in or outside refugee camps. They also have generally fewer opportunities to be involved in (camp) decision-making and consultations with relief organizations. Furthermore, local communities are often dispersed during complex emergencies, resulting in a breakdown of safety networks for women. In the camps, issues of safety and logistics of aid workers are considered first, resulting in issues primarily affecting women:

The layout of camps vis-a-vis work directly affect the lives of women by dictating distance of tasks such as water, fuel and supply collection, thus influencing strategies of maintaining households, routines.

The layout of camps vis-a-vis physical safety directly affect the lives of women, e.g. provision of communal housing with no privacy for women; locating toilets and other basic services at an unsafe distance from where women are housed; and the construction of barriers or mines around camp perimeters notwithstanding that firewood and other items need to be collected.

The location and makeup of supplies for subsistence (e.g. sorghum needs up to 3 hours of milling and cooking compared to rice, which needs only 30 minutes), or dried goods vs. culturally appropriate fresh foods also directly affect the lives of women in terms of length and intensity of labor necessary to prepare meals.
All of these factors need to be considered in terms of clan affiliation and culturally-determined divisions of labor. An excellent example of the issues described here, as they relate to Bhutanese refugee women in Nepal, is provided in Human Rights Watch (2003). Resources for teaching this issue are provided in the UNHCR Unit Plan for Ages 15-18 in Geography: The Environmental Impact of Refugees and UNHCR's Response (n.d.-h), in which students compare and contrast a number of factors in camps in the Kagera region of Kenya.
Using these materials, there is a great deal of scope for exploring definitions, locations, reasons, organizations, or possible individual actions in university speaking classes. Instructors may use dictogloss, jigsaw reading, case studies, or problem-solving techniques. Students could produce such artifacts as comic books, plays, presentations, debate, etc. There is an excellent lesson plan in Eastley (2003, 58-60) which can be used as an introduction for the unit.

[ p. 35 ]
One way to highlight these issues for engineering, architecture, or design students is to start with a jigsaw reading to identify the needs of refugee camp. Students work in pairs or groups to design a camp for a specified number of people expected at one specific location. Topographic maps will assist in planning. Students present their projects and complete an analysis and critique of all plans, then discuss. Students may also analyse and describe one system used in a camp, e.g. the fresh water delivery system, or the waste water purification system. Can they identify any problems with the system as it is, or can they suggest improvements on the design of the system?
One way to bring these issues to the fore for Economics students would be to run a simulation (either computer-based, or face-to-face) of informal economies of refugee camps through the assignment of roles giving times to do a task / allocations of supplies / needs of families. Students must then try and negotiate the division of labour in order to achieve all needs within the task parameters. They may set prices, or institute a barter system in order to do this.

Cross-cultural communication

Cross-cultural communication includes communication issues as well as issues of cultural expectations and conflicts of cultural norms. In complex emergencies, differing cultural expectations and norms may lead to marginalization and disenfranchisement of populations, resulting in threats or acts of violence against these populations, triggering flight from such conditions and areas. A good example of this, which can be used in its entirety as a reading text, or selectively as a listening text, is the story told by Mesfin, a refugee in the Kakuma camp, Kenya, in Tilting Cages: An Anthology of Refugee Writings edited by Flutter and Solomon (1995).
Refugees and IDPs also experience difficulties arising from conflicts of cultural expectations and norms when inter-reacting with local and international organizations. Some examples include: varying reactions to sexual assault, reactions to genital mutilation, and distribution routes of supplies in refugee and IDP camps and settlements. Finally, when refugees or IDPs begin to communicate with local and international organizations, they often need to communicate through translators, and problems associated with translation and representation often arise.

An Essential Resource

The World Refugee Survey is published annually, both in paper and on-line form. The 2004 edition is available for download from www.refugees.org/wrs04/index.html, and older versions are also available on the same site. The World Refugee Survey is a recommended resource for anyone thinking of incorporating the teaching of refugee issues into the curriculum. It offers a region-by-region and country-by-country description of the movements of and conditions in which refugees live. Current statistics on asylum seekers, refugees, and others of concern may be found at the UNHCR website.

Conclusion

Many possibilities exist for incorporating the teaching of the global refugee crisis into a great variety of classrooms in ways which interest and involve students. It is hoped that this brief introduction and the outlines of teaching ideas will spur a growing interest in the teaching of refugee issues. Involving students in empathy-building, critical analyses, case studies, and problem-solving of real world issues leads to heightened awareness of the world, its people and cultures. Sensitivity to language and program goals may be maintained while teaching such content-based units.

References

Bradford-Watts, K. (In Press). Teaching about the Global Refugee Crisis in the University Classroom.

Cooper, S., & Herrman, C. (2003). Real-time evaluation of UNHCR's response to the Liberia emergency, 2003. Geneva, Switzerland: Evaluation and Policy Analysis Unit, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.

Eastley, F. (2003). Refugee Issues in the Classroom. In T. Newfields, K. Kikuchi, & K. Asakawa (Eds.). Proceedings & Supplement for the 1st Peace as a Global Language Conference. Tokyo: PGL1 Committee. (pp. 58 - 60.)

[ p. 36 ]

Eastley, F. (2004). Human Rights and Problem-solving in the Classroom. In T. Newfields, K. Bradford-Watts, J. T. Denny, et al. (Eds.) Proceedings & Supplement for the 2nd Peace as a Global Language Conference. Tokyo: PGL2 Committee. (pp. 15 - 21.)

Finch, A. (2003). Peace in the Classroom. In T. Newfields, K. Kikuchi, & K. Asakawa (Eds.). Proceedings & Supplement for the 1st Peace as a Global Language Conference. Tokyo: PGL1 Committee. (pp. 38 - 57.)

Hyndman, J. (2000). Managing Displacement: Refugees and the Politics of Humanitarianism. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

Human Rights Watch. (2003). Trapped by Inequality: Bhutanese Refugee Women in Nepal. Human Rights Watch, 15 (8). Available online at www.hrw.org/reports/2003/nepal0903/index.htm. [Accessed 1 Aug. 2004].

MEXT. (2004). FY2003 White Paper on Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology: Higher Education to Support a Knowledge-Based Society. Available online at www.mext.go.jp/english/news/2004/05/04052401.htm. [Accessed 15 Aug. 2004].

MEXT. (2001). The rainbow plan Ð The education reform plan for the 21st century. Available online at . [Accessed 1 Aug. 2004].

UNHCR. (n.d.-a). A Pictorial History. Available online at www.unhcr.ch/pictorial/index.html [Expired link].

UNHCR. (n.d.-b). Lesson Plans for Ages 12-15 in Art: Repatriation and Graphic Communication. Available online at www.unhcr.ch/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/template/+dwtFqnp1xcDzmnwwwwwwwLFqYp1xceUh5cTPeUXTnBwBoqeRDxxwqroDte2Dlmdc5eRDlwrwGBeRSYDe2SBdcpeIybnM [Expired link].

UNHCR. (n.d.-c). Kakuma refugee camp - the "children's camp". Available online at www.unhcr.ch/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/template/+ywtFqnp1xcDzmhwwwwwwwLFqYp1xceUh5cTPeUXTnBwBoqeRDxxwqroDte2Dlmdc5eRDlwrcwDteR7wwA1MweIybnM [Expired link].

UNHCR. (1994-1997). Lego Poster Series. Available online at www.unhcr.ch/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/template/+mwtFqnp1xcDzmowwwwwwwLFq2p1xceUh5cTPeUXTnBwBoqeRDxxwqroDte2Dlmdc5eRDlwrGn5eIybnM [Expired link].

UNHCR. (1997). Review of UNHCR Implementing Arrangements and Implementing Partner Selection Procedures. Available online at www.unhcr.ch/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/print?tbl=RESEARCH&id=3ae6bd42c [Expired link].

UNHCR. (n.d.-d). Teaching Resources. Available online at www.unhcr.ch/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/template/+nwtFqnp1xcDzmhwwwwwwwLFq2p1xceUh5cTPeUXTnBwBoqeRDxxwqroDte2Dlmdc5eRDlwrGn5eIybnM [Expired link].

UNHCR. (n.d.-e). The Children's Camp. Available online at www.unhcr.ch/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/template/+ywtFqnp1xcDzmhwwwwwwwLFqYp1xceUh5cTPeUXTnBwBoqeRDxxwqroDte2Dlmdc5eRDlwrcwDteR7wwA1MweIybnM [Expired link].

UNHCR. (n.d.-f). Unit Plan for Ages 9-11 in Art: Creative Art Work. Available online at www.unhcr.ch/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/template/+UwtFqnp1xcDzmhwwwwwwwLFqjp1xceUh5cTPeUXTnBwBoqeRDxxwqroDte2Dlmdc5eRDlwrwGBeR6YEWW1peIybnM [Expired link].

UNHCR. (n.d.-g). Unit Plan for Ages 9-11 in Language / Literature: Refugee Children. Available online at www.unhcr.ch/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/template/+FwtFqnp1xcDzmxwwwwwwwLFqYp1xceUh5cTPeUXTnBwBoqeRDxxwqroDte2Dlmdc5eRDlwrcwDteR6YEWW1peIybnM [Expired link].

UNHCR. (n.d.-h). Unit Plan for Ages 15-18 in Geography: The Environmental Impact of Refugees and UNHCR's Response. Available online at www.unhcr.ch/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/template/+qwtFqnp1xcDzmhwwwwwwwLFqap1xceUh5cTPeUXTnBwBoqeRDxxwqroDte2Dlmdc5eRDlwrtndteRS4de2SBp1peIybnM [Expired link].

U.S. Committee for Refugees. (2002). World Refugee Survey 2002: An Annual Assessment of Conditions Affecting Refugees, Asylum Seekers, and Internally Displaced Persons. Washington, DC: U.S. Committee for Refugees.

Wilkinson, R. (2003). Old problems, new realities. Refugees, 3, 132.

Worknehe, M. (1995). All tomorrows are the same. In N. Flutter & C. Solomon (Eds.). Tilting Cages: An Anthology of Refugee Writings. Pyrmont NSW, Australia: N. Flutter and C. Solomon. (pp. 77-81.)

http://jalt.org/pansig/PGL2/HTML/BrWatts.htm

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The Addis Ababa Document on Refugees and Forced Population Displacements in Africa

Adopted by the OAU/UNHCR Symposium on Refugees and Forced Population Displacements in Africa
8 - 10 SEPTEMBER 1994
ADDIS ABABA, ETHIOP1A

(Held in Commemoration of the twenty-fifth anniversary of the adoption of the 1969 OAU Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa and the twentieth year of its entry into force)

CONTENTS

Foreword by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Mrs. Sadako Ogata and the Secretary-General of the Organization of Africa Unity, Dr. Salim A. Salim.
PART ONE INTRODUCTION
PART TWO RECOMMENDATIONS
I. Root Causes of Refugee Flows and other Forced Population Movements
II. The 1969 OAU Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa
III. Refugee Protection in Africa
IV. Material Assistance to Refugees
V. Internally Displaced Persons
VI. Solutions for Refugees

(a) Refugee Repatriation
(b) Inter-African Resettlement

VII. Other Populations in Need of Protection and Humanitarian Assistance
VIII. Emergency Preparedness and Response
IX. From Relief and Humanitaian Assistance to Socio-Economic Sustainability
X. Institutional Aspects
PART THREE
FOLLOW-UP

PART ONE

INTRODUCTION 1. The OAU/UNHCR Commemorative Symposium on Refugees and Forced Population Displacements in Africa took place in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, from 8 to 10 September 1994. The symposium was held to commemorate the twenty-fifth anniversary of the adoption of the 1969 OAU Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa (the " 1969 OAU Convention") and the twentieth year of its entry into force on 20 June 1974.
2. The Symposium brought together representatives of almost all the Member States of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) and a number of the Member States of the Executive Committee of the Programme of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Also represented were relevant organizations of the United Nations system, other inter-governmental organizations, non-governmental organizations, and academics from various parts of the world.
3. The participants in the Symposium have noted with satisfaction the important contribution that the 1969 OAU Convention has made to refugee protection and solutions in Africa. It has also inspired other regions of the world. While acknowledging the challenges facing the Convention, the Symposium reaffirmed its belief in the continued validity of the Convention as the regional foundation for providing protection and finding solutions for refugees in Africa. The Symposium also believed that the Convention provided a good basis for developing the legal tools and mechanisms for solving the problems of refugees and forced population displacements as a whole.
4. There have been positive developments in finding solutions for refugees in Africa, such as the successfully completed repatriation of South African refugees in 1993 and the continuing return home of over one million Mozambique refugees. However, new refugee emergencies have also occurred in many parts of the Continent. In fact, the refugee population in Africa has grown more than 10 times, from 700,000 to over 7,000,000,in the twenty-five years since the Convention came into existence in 1969. Moreover, in addition to the 7,000,000 refugees, one third of the world total, there are an estimated 20 million internally displaced persons on the African continent. But while the displacement crisis is growing, the political, financial and material support towards protecting and assisting refugees can no longer be taken for granted, as a result of various global developments.
5. The refugee flows impose intolerable security, social and economic burdens on the countries that have generously provided and continue to provide asylum. More seriously, the) are symptomatic of the tragedy of the ethnic conflicts, social disintegration and political anarchy prevailing in some countries in Africa.
6. Thus, the anniversaries of the 1969 OAU Convention provide an opportunity not only to review the achievements of and challenges facing the Convention, but also to draw attention to the continuing urgency of the refugee and displacement crisis in Africa.
7. The recommendations contained in this document do not lose sight of many important initiatives, recommendations, decisions, declarations and plans of action which have preceded this Symposium, in Africa and elsewhere, and which have an important bearing on the refugee issue. Thus, in formulating its recommendations, the Symposium has drawn inspiration from, among others, the Recommendations of the Pan-African Conference on_the Situation of Refugees in africa, (Arusha, Tanzania, 7 - 17 May 1979, "The Arusha Recommendations"); the African Charter on Human and People's Rights of 1981; The Second International Conference on Assistance to Refugees in Africa (1984, "ICARA II Recommendations"); the Oslo Declaration and Plan of Action on the Plight of Refugees. Returnees and Displaced Persons in Southern Africa ("SARRED", August 1988); the Khartoum Declaration on Africa's Refugee Crisis Adopted by the Seventeenth Extra-Ordinary Session of the OAU Commission of Fifteen on Refugees (Khartoum, Sudan, 20 - 24 September 1990); the Declaration Framework of Cooperation and Action Programme of the Horn of Africa Summit on Humanitarian Issues (Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, April 1992); the African Humanitarian Initiative for Sustainable Development (l993); the Cairo Declaration on the Establishment Within the OAU of a Mechanism for Conflict Prevention Management and Resolution (Cairo, June 1993); the Addis Ababa PARINAC Conclusions and Recommendations, (March 1994); the Oslo PARINAC Declaration and Plan of Action (Oslo, June 1994); and the Tunis Declaration on the 1969 OAU Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee - Problems in Africa (Tunis, June 1994).

PART TWO

RECOMMENDATIONS I. ROOT CAUSES OF REFUGEE FLOWS AND OTHER FORCED POPULATION DISPLACEMENTS
8. Refugee flow are a symbol of the crises which afflict many societies in Africa. In particular, most of the refugee flows are the result of armed conflicts and civil strife. Ethnic intolerance; the abuse of human rights on a massive scale; the monopolization of political and economic power; refusal to respect democracy or the results of free and fair elections; resistance to popular participation in governance; and poor management of public affairs all play a part in forcing people to flee their normal places of residence.
9. External factors have also played a part in at least contributing to forced population displacements. Historically, the main cause of coerced population displacements has been colonialism. Today, there is no question that international economic forces have contributed to the widespread poverty in Africa and to the widening gap between the poor and the rich. In many African countries, there is competition over scarce resources, and the human and physical environment has suffered degradation. Some States can no longer carry out the critical functions of government, including the control of national territory; oversight over the nation's resources; extraction of revenue; maintenance of an adequate national infrastructure; rendering of basic services such as sanitation, education, and housing; and governance and maintenance of law and order. All these factors contribute in one or- another way to the root causes of displacement.
10. The Symposium has focused much of its discussions on the root causes of displacement and the imperative need to carry out preventive measures. Recognizing that conflicts are the major cause of displacement in Africa today, the participants echoed many times over the urgency of talking energetic measures to prevent conflicts or resolve them expeditiously after they have started. They cal]ed for decisive national and international measures to create stable, viable and progressive societies. Otherwise, refugee displacements would continue unabated, and prospects for the return of refugees to their countries origin would also remain elusive.

Recommendation One

The Member Stares of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) and the OAU Secretariat, in collaboration with the relevant inter-governmental and non-governmental organizations, should examine all factors which cause or contribute to civil conflicts, with a view to elaborate a Comprehensive Plan of Action for tackling the root causes of refugee flows and other displacements. Among others, the following issues should be examined: ethnic strife and conflict; the role of the arms trade tn causing or exacerbating conflicts in Africa; the establishment of a firm foundation for democratic institutions and governance; the respect of human rights; the promotion of economic development and social progress, the obstacles to providing protection and humanitarian assistance to displaced persons; and the inter-relationship between humanitarian, political and military actions at an international level.

Recommendation Two

The political leadership of Africa should rise up to the challenges of practicing politics of inclusion and popular participation in national affairs, creating a firm foundation for responsible and accountable governance, and promoting social progress, economic development and a just and fair society.

Recommendation Three

In this context, the Symposium notes with satisfaction the activities of the OAU in conflict prevention and resolution. Bearing in mind the beneficial effects of such activities in preventing or reducing displacement, the Symposium:
(i) recommends that the linkage between the activities of the OAU in conflict prevention, management and resolution and those on behalf of refugees and internally displaced persons should be strengthened.
(ii) urges organizajtions involved in refugee and other displacement issues, and the international community at large, to support the activities of the OAU in conflict prevention, management and resolution.
(iii) in particular, encourages those organizaiions, and the international community at large, to contribute generously to the OAU Peace Fund and to provide human resources, technical support advisory services and equipment to support the above-mentioned activities, in conformity with the relevant OAU guidelines.
(iv) further encourages them to support the OAU in elaborating and expanding its activities in the fields of human rights monitoring, the promotion of human rights and humanitarian law, election monitoring, the management of political transitions, and the development of early warning systems at national, sub-regional and continental levels.

Recommendation Four

The Symposium urges all parties involved in armed conflicts to respect the principles and norms of humanitarian law, particularly those aimed at protecting civilians from the effects of war, preventing their being subjected to attack, reprisals or starvation, or being displaced in conditions contrary to the provisions of Additional Protocol 11 to the 1949 Geneva Conventions on the laws of war.
II. THE 1969 OAU CONVENTION GOVERNING THE SPECIFIC ASPECTS OF REFUGEE PROBLEMS IN AFRICA
11. As a regional complement of the 1951 United Nations Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol, the 1969 OAU Convention has been a strong pillar for refugee protection and solutions in Africa. It has enabled the provision of asylum to refugees and the implementation of voluntary repatriation in a way that has consolidated brotherhood and comity among African States. It has also inspired the development of favourable refugee laws, policies and practices in Africa and indeed in other regions of the world, most notably in the Latin American region. The Convention remains the only international legal instrument which contains elaborate principles on the voluntary repriatation of refugees.

Recommendation Five

The Symposium reaffirms irs belief in the continuing validity of the 1969 OAU Convention as the cornerstone of refugee protection and solutions in Africa. In this regard, and in order to implement the Convention more effectively, it is recommended that States:

(i) which have not already done so should ratify the Convention.

Recommendation Six Those regions of the world in which international or regional legal systems for refugee protection do not exist, or where the applicable regimes are under review, should consider the relevance of the 1969 OAU Convention. ln this regard, the Symposium highlights the Convention's broad definition of a refugee, at provisions on the non-projection of refugees at borders and the prohibition of refoulement of refugees, and the respect of the voluntariness of refugee repatriation.
III. REFUGEE PROTECTION IN AFRICA
12. Most of the African States have acceded to the three major international instruments on refugees. 45 States have acceded to the 1951 Convention; 46 to the 1967 Protocol and 42 to the 1969 OAU Convention. Only 4 States in Africa have not yet acceded to at least one of these instruments. Throughout the continent, countries are generous towards refugees and many practice liberal asylum policies.
13. Nevertheless, the institution of asylum and the system of refugee protection are under tremendous stress in Africa. The large number of refugees seeking asylum in countries already themselves experiencing tremendous social and economic hardships, has brought into question the very capacity of nations to co?e with refugees. In a number of countries, the basic principles of refugee protection are not being upheld. Refugees have been arrested and detained without charge. Others have been resumed against their will to places where their lives may be in danger. Yet others have been restricted to refugee camps or to remote, inaccessible locations where they are sometimes exposed to banditry, rape and other forms of criminality. Many have not been able to enjoy social, economic and civil rights.
14. This is partly the result of a combination of political, security, social and economic constraints whereby States are able to abide by their international legal obligations only under the most difficult and burden-some circumstances. Unfortunately, because of a global recession and the increased number of persons seeking asylum and humanitarian assistance world-wide, the international community's financial and material support to lighten the burden on African host countries has diminished.
Recommendation Seven African States should abide by the letter and spirit of the I969 OAU Convention and continue to uphold their traditional hospitality rewards refugees and their liberal asylum policies. In particular:

Recommendation Eight The international community, the United Nations, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, and other relevant organizations, should support and assist host Governments in fulfilling their responsibilities towards refugees in a manner consistent with the principles of refugee law on the one hand, and legitimate national security, social and economic interests on the other hand. In particular, financial, material and technical assistance should be mode available to:

(i) ensure that the social and economic structures, community services, and the environment of host countries or communities are not unduly stretched as a result of having to host massive numbers of refugees.

IV. MATERIAL ASSISTANCE TO REFUGEES
15. The principles of international solidarity and burden-sharing have traditionally provided the foundation for the response by the international community to refugee problems. It is now evident that African countries cannot sustain the burdens of hosting refugees on their own. Yet, because of "compassion fatigue" or "donor fatigue", financial and material resources for refugee programmes in Africa from the developed countries are declining. In recent emergency situations, the response of the international community has been hesitant and characterized by poor preparedness and limited resources.
16. Moreover, in all parts of the world, measures taken to meet diverse national interests have not always conformed to the objectives of refugee protection in all cases. To avoid illegal migration and reduce the abuse of asylum procedures, measures such as interdiction on the high seas, visa restrictions and carrier sanctions have been instituted. Likewise, new refugee categorations have been devised along with a more restrictive interpretation of the refugee definition in the 1951 Convention. In addition, concepts such as "safe countries of origin", "temporary protection", safety zones", "in-country processing and "safe return" have been developed.
17. These measures, while taken to safeguard various national interests, have had the effect of imposing restrictive migratory controls and raised concerns that genuine refugees are being deterred from being able to seek and enjoy asylum. On the other hand, in some countries, such measures have the effect of denying entry to refugees.
Recommendation Nine Donor countries, and relevant intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, should provide financial, material and technical assistance to the African asylum countries hosting refugee populations. In cases of large-scale influxes, such assistance should necessarily be provided on a timely basis in order that lives are nol lost.
Recommendation Ten The refugee crisis cannot be addressed effectively through rigid and regionalized approaches. The Symposium recommends that this problem be addressed in a global and comprehensive manner, as it will ultimately affect every region of the world. Likewise, countries should strive for effective cooperation and mal assistance on refugee, displacement and migratory issues, the same way they collaborate on security, economic and environmental matters,

Recommendation Eleven

The Symposium appeals for genuine international solidarity and burden-sharing to be brought back to the centre

https://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/africa/REFUGEE2.htm

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LACK OF SANITATION- TOILETS GLOBALLY...

11/17/2008

Dear John

The myriad benefits of toilets, and why the world needs more of them.

By Sara Blask- Hong Kong

November 19 is one of the only unsung days of the year Hallmark hasn’t yet exploited: World Toilet Day. We spend about three years of our lives sitting on a toilet. Though we in the Western world may not realize it, that white piece of flushable porcelain is one of man’s best friends. We sit on its haunches morning, noon, and night, usually between six and eight times a day. It’s there for us after six-packs of beer, dried prunes, and bad Mexican food; through late nights and parties, bouts of nervousness and morning sickness; in sickness and in health. A good American Standard rarely lets us down and when it does, we just yank its chain and it dutifully begins to work again. These bad boys put up with our shit and rarely complain.

But some 2.6 billion people, including 980 million children, do not have this luxury, which is one of the reasons why the United Nations declared 2008 the International Year of Sanitation. Almost 40 percent of the Earth’s population does not have access to adequate sanitation, neither basic toilets nor hygiene facilities, according to the latest U.N. Development Program statistics. And what does this all mean? A lot of death, a lot of sickness, a lot of lost dignity, and millions of tourist dollars unearned. One child dies every 15 seconds from water-born disease. More than 400 million schooldays are lost worldwide every year because of diarrheal diseases. Mothers die in childbirth, menstruating girls skip school because of poor facilities, and the threat of rape increases as women look for places to relieve themselves in dignity at night. It’s these facts — along with a picture of Joe the Plumber — that got me listening to what a petite man with glasses and slightly graying hair had to say on the day Americans were lining up at the voting booths.

“Today is Election Day in America. We’re really excited about the possible outcome, but right now we’re going to talk about toilets.” And so began Jack Sim’s opening speech at the World Toilet Summit & Expo held earlier this month in Macau, a former Portuguese colony an hour by ferry from Hong Kong. I reached for a peppermint Mentos in the glass dish in front of me. “AIDS is sexy, toilets are not. There are 500 million toilets needed for the 2.6 billion toiletless people. As you bring people from poverty to health, they become more economically productive. There’s potential for $1 trillion in the global BOP [bottom of the pyramid] sanitation industry.” He changes the slide and up pops a picture of garbage wrapped in a Louis Vuitton garbage bag. “We need to make toilets an object of desire.”

Named this year as one of Time magazine’s “Heroes of the Environment,” Jack Sim is the man behind the lesser-known WTO, the World Toilet Organization, a non-profit based in Singapore dedicated to improving toilet and sanitation conditions around the globe, eliminating the toilet taboo, and developing a market-based strategy to install infrastructure. What began in 2001 with 15 member organizations now has 151 in 53 nations. His weapons? Humor, facts, grassroots organizing, and simple business practices. “Empower local women and you won’t need billions of donor dollars,” he preaches.

This year’s summit was held at the Venetian Macau Resort Hotel, an interesting choice considering that the purpose of the World Toilet Organization is to help the developing world. Summits in prior years have been held in, among other cities, Beijing, Moscow, Taipei, and New Delhi, which makes the most sense since only 30 percent of India’s wastewater is treated and open defecation is still widespread. But Macau? Macau is Asia’s Las Vegas. In 2006, gambling revenues from Macau’s casinos were for the first time greater than those of the Las Vegas strip, making it the highest-volume gambling center in the world. The Venetian Macao, which is modeled after its counterpart in Las Vegas, is the third largest building in the world. We’re talking 3,000 suites, 3,400 slot machines, 800 gaming tables, 1.6 million square feet of retail space, enough Renaissance-style faux painted walls to make Michelangelo turn in his grave, and a helluva fleet of toilets to maintain for people dropping a lot of money on odds stacked against them.

Both access to public toilets and clean sanitation facilities, however, are integral to promoting tourism, says Raymond Tam Vai Man, chairman of Macau’s Administration Committee. No one wants to watch where they step, and they don’t have to in Macau. The island saw 27 million tourists last year alone, up 22 percent from the previous year. Simultaneously, the number of public toilets has increased from 32 to 56. By comparison, tourism lost due to a perception of poor sanitation infrastructure in Nepal amounts to $5.7 million annually, according to the World Bank’s Water and Sanitation Program; that figure jumps to $238 million in India.

But in general, the presence of public toilets is becoming increasingly rare — and in Japan, home of the renown and fully kitted TOTO toilet, the consequences of so few public toilets could mean death on a massive scale. The nation’s disaster prevention panel released a study last month reporting that nearly a million people would be unable to find a toilet if a magnitude 7.3-quake struck Tokyo at noon on a workday, sending 12 million people pouring out of office buildings and creating a potential hygiene and sanitation nightmare of biblical proportions.

In London, almost half of the city’s public toilets have closed in the last eight years, and nationwide, the numbers of public toilets have decreased by 40 percent, according to British journalist Rose George, author of The Big Necessity: Adventures in the World of Human Waste. She also nods to a passage in a 2001 Fodor’s guide to New York City that mentions public bathrooms are hard to find and vary widely when it comes to cleanliness. Coincidentally, a husband-and-wife team in New York started SitOrSquat.com last year, a Web site that combines Google Maps with detailed, user-generated content chronicling toilets and restrooms around the globe (but especially in Gotham) where you can deposit your gift via sitting (clean, safe) or squatting (filthy, don’t-put-your-butt-there).

“People are buying far more coffee and muffins than they need to just to use a restroom,” says George. “But you don’t get any protest about that, you don’t get anyone writing to their local congressman or MP. There isn’t this groundswell of protest and dissatisfaction with the status quo that you would need to get some kind of change at the top level.”

Dr. Kamal Kal, a pioneer in community-led total sanitation, a grassroots approach towards eliminating open defecation, is the last person to speak before our lunch break and subsequent tour of the expo. He’s worked in India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Cambodia, Ethiopia, and Sierra Leone, among other countries. “How many of you have ever defecated outside?” he asks. We look around at one other — there are at least 150 people in the room. Nearly everyone raises their hand, slowly at first, then about level with their ear. Kal changes the slide to a picture of a slum in Calcutta that looks more like a storage unit for supplies and animals. “These toilets are used for everything except feces,” he tells us. “No human wants to live among shit.”

Improved sanitation means more jobs, more economic growth, and less poverty. According to a recent WHO study, every dollar spent improving sanitation generates an average economic benefit of $9. The “sanitary revolution” — that is, the introduction of clean water and sewage disposal — has been the greatest medical advance of the last century and a half, according to a poll by the British Medical Journal. Though vaccinations certainly helped curb the spread of disease, they didn’t altogether stop it as much as the toilet did. A simple toilet is one of the cheapest medicines, adding decades to the human lifespan — when it’s used.

We can thank the English for the first flush toilet, which was invented in the late 1500s just as the urban population was beginning to explode. Sir John Harington designed the modern-day precursor for his godmother, Queen Elizabeth I, and then a man named Thomas Crapper improved upon its various parts and commercialized it. The S-bend, which among other design principles creates a water seal that enables the bowl to remain filled, is still today’s standard design.

It’s not often we think about what happens every time we flush the toilet, and this “flush and forget” attitude is something we need to address, says WTO founder Sim. We see our solids and liquids disappear down the drain and off they go — but to where? In London it disappears into a network of sewers at least 37,000 miles long (by comparison, New York’s network is 6,000 miles and Paris’ 1,500) that extends 80 miles outside of Central London and eventually ends up in a wastewater treatment plant where it will be filtered and eventually cleaned and separated into effluent or sludge, which in the U.S. and the U.K. is primarily used as fertilizer.

However, wastewater treatment plants are not found everywhere. Vancouver doesn’t have one, so the sewage ends up in the sound. Brussels, administrative head of the European Union, didn’t have one until 2003, and Milan not until 2005. And even if a plant does exist, it’s often relying on infrastructure created a century ago for a much smaller population. “You just start to look at the system and you see it’s not as perfect as one assumes it is because we have this wonderful luxury of flushing the toilet and just seeing it disappear,” says journalist George.

It’s in developing world, however — the areas where Jack Sim and Dr. Kamal Kal have logged the most hours — that are ahead of the curve. Almost 40 eco-toilets have been installed at the Kalungu Girls Boarding School in Uganda, which consist of a toilet pit dug in the ground in two sections: one for urine and another for feces. Urine is collected in a septic tank while feces and toilet paper go into a basket. The user covers this with ash and every few days the waste is emptied into a drying chamber. Six to eight months later, it’s ready for use as fertilizer on the school’s nearby banana plantation.

And while Ugandan girls are busy fertilizing their banana trees, thousands of miles away in India more than one million Sulabh twin pit composting toilets, which turn feces into fertilizer over a period of about two years, are in use in more than 1,000 towns in 25 states. In China, more than 15 million rural households are connecting their toilets to a biogas digester, which transforms waste into fuel within a few hours.

“The most significant thing about sanitation at the moment is that psychology is changing and the mindset is changing, so instead of wholesale giving someone a sewer and a flush toilet, development people are saying, ‘Well, no, let’s adapt to what your cultural preferences are towards hygiene and latrines, and all your water situations, or your ability to pay or train your staff,’” says George. “All those things have to be taken into consideration. You can’t just install sewers willy nilly.”

At the expo, Ernest Koh, an instructor at Ngee Ann Polytechnic in Singapore, takes cultural adaptation seriously. He steps up on a prototype of a 2-in-1 Sit-Squat toilet designed by one of his students like it’s a kitchen stool. He straddles its wide-mouthed rim and proceeds to demonstrate the Southeast Asian squat position that faces away from the wall. “This position is good because it allows for a wet landing — so no splashing.”

He continues. “Squatting is healthier and more ergonomic. The angle between the anus and the rectum is increased, which means a smoother exit of stools. But if you’re disabled, or wearing tight jeans or pantyhose, it could be difficult. Which is why we also designed this to have a lid that pulls down so you can sit or squat.”

He proceeds to turn around toward the wall and demonstrates the East Asian method of squatting, most often practiced in Japan and Korea, different only in the direction the person faces. Then he stands up, puts the seat down, and sits. “The beauty of this toilet is that it caters to everyone. Many Asians find it more comfortable to squat and in many rural communities many people still do, but we want Western visitors to also be welcome.”

Koh’s booth is one of almost 30 featured at the expo, which is kind of the Sundance of the toilet and sanitation world without the red carpet. Sandwiched around his piece of expo real estate are booths hawking the latest in plumbing, pipe fittings, and porto-potties. But also featured is the waterless GottaGoToilet ($56) made from a cardboard box that apparently holds up to 275 pounds (I didn’t test it) that comes with a hole, eight biodegradable plastic bags, and magic powder that makes waste eco-friendly in a matter of days.

In the booth adjacent to the GottaGo is a new super toilet from Huida ($1,200), a Chinese company, that comes replete with an in-seat butt warmer, male and female water jets, an in-bowl light, and a USB port to hook up your mp3 while you do your business. Wang Yanqing, the company representative, also mentioned that there’s a model in the works with a hook-up for video games. “Huh, video games?” asked a man standing next to me. “Is this in response to consumer demand?” Yanqing responded by giving both of us a free towel.

In the back corner is a shoebox-sized model of the WC Tronic 402, a new concept of a public toilet made by Ströer, a German company that designs street furniture, or in their words, “out of home media.” This self-contained public toilet system is equipped with two toilets and is eerily automatic in every way, right down to the entrance door. When a person uses one toilet, the bowl, seat, and back wall of the other toilet fold into a hidden area for a deep cleaning and drying, all within the span of a minute or so. In other words, you’re sitting on a freshly cleaned toilet every time you enter — no need to layer the seat in one-ply toilet paper barrier to protect your bum from what lies beneath. The prototype is currently being used and tested in Dresden.

George hasn’t seen the model in person, but after hearing a description proclaimed, “Why would anyone use this if we can’t even master something basic!” Part of the larger sanitation problem, she adds, is simply a question of semantics. There’s really no neutral word in the English language for our waste. Excrement sounds too scientific. Feces too filthy. Shit too crass. Poop too elementary.

“It wasn’t always this way,” she says. “Two hundred, 300 years ago, you could attend the king on his toilet and it was considered an honor. We have this linguistic handicap that has fortified a taboo around the subject and it’s just impeding all sorts of development all over the world.” • 17 November 2008

http://thesmartset.com/article11170801/

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OUTHOUSES- OCT 5, 2015

Prof calls for preservation of iconic outhouses

RUSSELL CONTRERAS THE ASSOCIATED PRESS

CORRALES, N.M. -At a time when life could be harsh in the American Southwest, outhouses served more than one important role. They provided structure, protected water resources and created important social norms, a New Mexico professor says.

Many of the aging wooden structures still dot the landscape in the region and across the Great Plains. Richard Melzer, a University of New Mexico-Valencia history professor, wants to see the iconic buildings preserved before they're gone from the memory and legacy of the Old West.

Melzer has been researching the historic lavatories and hopes his work will encourage outhouse conservation efforts since they helped modernize areas like present-day New Mexico amid drought and limited plumbing.

‟They had a tremendous cultural impact on the region," said Melzer, who has collected hundreds of photos of old outhousesin New Mexico.

The outhouses assisted in establishing norms on sanitation and personal hygiene, he said.

In New Mexico, they served residents such as ranch hands tending to cattle and rural teachers educating the children of chili pickers. And they did so while protecting the environment and important water resources.

Inside, one might find a Bible, old tools, or catalogues from Montgomery Ward or Sears, Roebuck and Co. Two seats meant a higher economic statusfor owners, and the walls might be plastered with wallpaper to keep away insects or unwanted audiences.

Such items can still be found in some abandoned outhouses.

‟They tell the story of the past," Melzer said.

The exact number of historic outhouses throughout the Southwest and Great Plains is unknown.

The New Mexico Historic Preservation Division, for example, says around 40 outhouses occupy historic ranches and homesteads in the state.But Melzer says there likely are hundreds more in the Southwest, and people are beginning to collect them. One Roswell aficionado has amassed around a dozen or so, he said.

Outhouses also are part of a number of properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places across the country. That's the case with the Anderson Lodge, an 1890 two-story multiroom log cabin in the Washakie near Meeteetse, Wyo., listed on

CONTINUED ON C2

Article Continued Below

See preservation on Page C02

FROM PAGE C1: PROF

the registry along with its outhouse.

A late 19th century outhouse is a feature of the Casa San Ysidro: The Gutierrez-Minge House, a Corrales home owned by the Albuquerque Museum. The home's origins go back to the 1870s.

Collector Ward Allan Minge bought the outhouse from another location and preserved it, Casa San Ysidro site manager Carol Lopez said.

‟Outhouses remained common, especially in rural areas, until after World War II because of the lack of indoor plumbing and electricity,” Lopez said. ‟Here in Corrales, they were common up until the 1970s.” In fact, when indoor plumbing finally came to parts of New Mexico, some residents shunned the idea of bringing what went on in the outhouse into the home where they ate and slept.

‟People thought it was just gross,” said Melzer, who is scheduled to release the details of his outhouse study Saturday at Casa San Ysidro. ‟That's what the outhouse was for, they thought. For out there.”

History professor Richard Melzer wants to see outhouses like this 19th century-era one at Casa San Ysidro in Corrales, N.M., preserved, saying 'They had a tremendous cultural impact on the region.' RUSSELL CONTRERAS • AP

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GLOBAL- Rural Water and Sanitation Assessing impacts- 2000

http://www.oecd.org/dac/evaluation/Evaluation%20insights%20WASH%20final%20draft.pdf

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More People Have Cell Phones Than Toilets, U.N. Study Shows

Out of the world’s estimated 7 billion people, 6 billion have access to mobile phones. Only 4.5 billion have access to working toilets

By Yue Wang March 25, 20130

http://newsfeed.time.com/2013/03/25/more-people-have-cell-phones-than-toilets-u-n-study-shows/

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We need to talk about… toilets

Issue 414

2008 is the ‘International Year of Sanitation’. What will it take, asks Maggie Black, to launch a new sanitary revolution?

A girl in Java, Indonesia, enjoying her new school toilet. Photo: UNICEF / Josh Estey

Exactly 150 years ago, an exceptionally hot summer reduced the Thames flowing through London to a disgusting trickle. The ‘Great Stink’ off the river was so excruciating that Parliament at Westminster could barely sit. The terrors of cholera were relatively new and almost everyone believed that the fumes were pestilential.
This threat had a concentrating effect on retching MPs’ legislative faculties. The act they rushed through voted an unheard-of public sum – three million pounds sterling – for the transformation of sewerage in London by Sir Joseph Bazalgette, and led to revolutions in local government and public health engineering throughout the industrializing world.¹ ‘Laissez-faire,’ declared a contemporary editorial in the Illustrated London News, ‘is an excellent maxim where trade is concerned. But in the manufacture of poisons, laissez-faire is not to be tolerated except by political and municipal idiots.’
If only such sentiments were as vividly expressed today. Great Stinks are routinely emanated by rivers all over the world swollen with raw sewage and reduced to a trickle in the hot season. The Choluteca flowing through the steep-sided city of Tegucigalpa, Honduras, renders the valley air vile, for example. But Great Stinks do not instil the level of dread they once did – more’s the pity. Equivalent attention and massive public investment are desperately needed today on behalf of the 40 per cent of the world’s population – 2.6 billion people – without a proper means of dealing with the personal emissions of pee and shit that everyone on the planet has to manage on a daily basis.
Laissez-faire is not only tolerated, but characterizes public policy towards this hidden international scandal. Consider the implications. Because they don’t have toilets, millions of people practise what is known as ‘open defecation’. They wait for darkness to set off for the fields; or they dump the foul contents of their household bucket in an open drain when no-one is looking; or they squat down on a bread-wrapper or plastic bag and throw the parcel on a dump. Rainfall or a local stream, or maybe scavenging dogs and pigs, help tidy the mess away, or the sun may oblige by baking it dry. But in an increasingly crowded world, millions of people inevitably pick up excreta-related diseases from faecal particles lying about in the open, and 1.5 million small children thereby annually lose their lives.
Why on earth is this scandalous lack of basic facilities not better known and addressed? Part of the problem is the abhorrence surrounding the subject in every society. No-one wants to mention either the act or the substance, and many people are squeamish about even mentioning the receptacle or cubicle we visit several times a day. Except for those with a taste for scatological humour, euphemism is the rule. We talk about ‘water rates’ and ‘water connections’ as if no sewerage pipes exist. In the US, there are ‘restrooms’ where people go to… sleep? Toilet training of the young in every culture seems to include teaching them to avoid mentioning anything to do with the human evacuation process.
When it comes to public health, diseases such as cholera and other diarrhoeas, even worms and parasitic infections such as bilharzia (also known as schistosomiasis, bilharzia is transmitted by a parasitecarrying snail. It is usually contracted by wading in water with infected snails, but the parasite gets into the water/snail by being emitted in human faeces), are described as ‘waterrelated’ – even by World Health Organization (WHO) experts who know better. Although water has important roles to play in spreading the causative pathogens about, and also in washing them away by handy use of a tap and soap, they are not strictly water-related. They are not even ‘excreta-related’ because urine is virtually sterile. They are uncompromisingly shit-related – brought on by particles sticking to hands, feet, lips and utensils, either via human contact or from insects and bugs, from where they land up in digestive tracts.
Because no-one will call a spade a spade, a false diagnosis of the worldwide sanitation crisis and faulty prescriptions are often advanced. ‘Clean water supplies’ are not the answer. All the evidence shows that in the triumvirate of water, hygiene and sanitation, water supplies make the least impact on health, and sanitation much the greatest, followed by hygiene.²
Disconnecting ‘wat’ from ‘san’
‘Water and sanitation’ are invariably conflated in programmes for poorer citizens. In an industrialized society, where the press of a handle flushes our detritus away, this may make sense – although the profligacy of supplying 15,000 litres of drinkable water to every European and North American just to flush their toilets is mind-bending once you think about it. But in large parts of the world, the means by which people get rid of their excreta is entirely separate from their water supply. Their toilet – if they have one – cannot have its water supply piped in and its output piped away. Neither they nor their authorities can afford the investment required, not just in pipes and underground infrastructure, but in sewage treatment and disposal. Plus, in many countries of Africa and the Middle East (as well as India and China), there is acute water stress. So universal sewerage is a non-starter.
Wherever sewerage is impracticable – which includes most of the rural developing world, where two billion of those without toilets live – ‘sanitation’ mostly consists of an ‘on-site’ facility. This means a cabin over a dug pit or septic tank. It could be a ventilated earth closet, a squatting plate with a drop-hole and cover, or a pan flushed by a jugful of water or a handful of ash (see ‘For our convenience’, page 14). Over the years, pioneers have upgraded the item derogatively known as ‘a latrine’ to make it more congenial, cleaner, and able to compost or biodegrade its content. Some enthusiasts for recyclable systems recommend ecological sanitation for everyone. But the popularity and superiority of the water closet means that wastewater recycling and lower-volume flushing are as far as ‘ecosan’ is likely to get in happily sewered environments.
So toilets – not so fancy as porcelain pedestals but decent, affordable and useable nonetheless – exist in many models and variations. There is toilet take-up on a slowly growing scale (see box below). But numbers lag. One reason is that many ‘watsan’ programmes spend the lion’s share of their resources on water. In Madagascar, 95 per cent of funds allocated to ‘water and sanitation’ are for water, leaving six US cents per head a year to spend on sanitation. ‘What on earth can I do with that?’ asks the government’s chief of sanitation. Madagascar is typical. Sanitation has rock bottom political priority, barely appearing in national development or assistance plans.
Excuses, excuses
The excuse offered by politicians and planners is that there is popular demand for water supplies – indeed, in India, politicians outspokenly campaign on promises of new and cost-free supplies. By contrast, no-one calls for shit removal. True, life is impossible without water while a toilet cannot make this claim, however hard economists argue that the toll of ill-health is a costly burden. But the reason why demand for sanitation is not expressed is because the subject is taboo, not because people don’t feel it. For women, having to manage with nowhere to ‘go’ is not just inconvenient, but an assault on their personal dignity. The night-time expedition can lead to sexual harassment and attack (see ‘Dignity and the decent facility’, page 16), and reputation is also at stake. In urban South Africa, a woman seen cleaning or emptying a public latrine is unmarriageable. Unless the topic is tackled sensitively, it is not going to surface in a meeting with the local MP.
Even when it is tackled sensitively, eliciting demand is tricky. For a start, no-one installs a toilet as a health aid. Sanitation may be publicly rated the greatest medical advance in 150 years – as a British Medical Journal poll recently discovered – but the benefit is public. Privately, people are more often motivated by comfort, convenience, privacy, safety for women and children and social status.³ Actually, this makes sense. We want decent toilets because we want to manage our bodily output needs in a satisfactory and dignified way. And unless the ‘home improvement’ does this, health advantages are meaningless.

In one Nigerian village, the foolishness of glorifying excreta by building a house for it was greeted with mirth

Too often, targeted customers among the poor have not been offered a system or cistern they regard as an improvement on the great outdoors. Every society has a sanitation system – imagining they don’t because they don’t have ‘toilet cabins’ is part of the baggage of prejudice and lack of information surrounding the subject. They allocate special places, what is to be done in them, and who may go when. But search the anthropological literature, and you will find that the silence on shit-related behaviour is as deafening as if a blackout had been imposed. A few travel writers have broken the taboo. In 1964, VS Naipaul complained that Indian society was collectively blind to the sight of people squatting everywhere and anywhere to relieve themselves, and that the Indian peasant suffered claustrophobia if ‘he has to use an enclosed latrine’. His book was unofficially banned for its temerity.
Informal enquiry into people’s lavatorial customs reveals that people everywhere have reasons for what they do. In one Nigerian village, the foolishness of glorifying excreta by building a house for it was greeted with mirth. Only when their chief was threatened with arrest did the villagers comply by building one: the idea conflicted with strong beliefs which no-one had enquired into, and of course they never used it. In parts of Madagascar, digging a pit to contain excreta is similarly unthinkable. Fady (taboos) require that no-one should put their shit on top of another’s, and in a society that venerates the ancestors it cannot be put underground where it will contaminate the dead. Only after a terrible cholera epidemic in 1999-2001 did the question of fady, how real they were and how to tackle them, begin to be addressed.⁴

New facilities, new jobs. A toilet production centre in West Bengal. Photo: UNICEF WEST BENGAL

It’s got to be nice
It is easy to understand why entrenched behaviours favour the air, wind, sunshine, and natural ecological processes over a hot and stinking toilet house. Unless ‘improved’ pit toilets are well maintained, they do not remain congenial for long. What happens in a ‘dry toilet’ with a drop-hole when people miss? Some sanitary enthusiasts build toilets all over the place with missionary enthusiasm. In rural Nicaragua, family plots may have two or even three ugly cabinets on plinths, so prolific has NGO effort been. But do people invariably use them? The evidence is that, even after renouncing the devil of ‘open defecation’ and bringing excretion indoors, regular exhortation by community volunteers is needed to stop people slipping back to the fields. In large, crowded townships, where space and privacy are at a premium, things may be different.
This highlights one of the crucial aspects of what is needed to set a new sanitary revolution in train. Arguments may rage between exponents of ‘ecological’, recycling and non-polluting systems, and the virtues of waterflushes and sewers (see ‘To sewer or not to sewer’, page 12). But what matters most is offering people a toilet they want and are prepared consistently and endurably to use. That means it’s got to be nice. The need to reduce costs sufficiently to make sanitation affordable for the poor may mean that the toilet they adopt has a very short life as a desirable facility. Will they then be able to afford another?

What matters most is offering people a toilet they want and are prepared consistently and endurably to use

In a community on the periphery of Dakar, Senegal, people all want a waterseal toilet with a porcelain pan. This is understandable. But it is not possible without a subsidy. In arid areas or where human fertilizer is valued, cheaper ‘dry’ systems may be fine. But even they are expensive compared to a walk in the bush. In a dusty village far from Dakar, women find a $20 contribution (60 per cent of the cost) for slab, lid and vent-pipe hard to produce. ‘Everyone here is in favour of toilets,’ says a women’s leader, ‘it is simply a matter of means.’
The public health revolution that followed London’s Great Stink required large investments of public funds. Whatever system is installed, it is neither fair nor sensible to expect those without facilities today to pay the whole price – as current policy seems to expect. The rationale is that ‘what people don’t pay for, they don’t appreciate’. But lack of appreciation is not the whole problem. Rather, demand is not being effectively nurtured, and there is no publicly backed, appropriate sanitary economy with cheap, attractive, good quality products ready to meet it.
Needed: decent jobs in muck
What could such a sanitary economy look like? The one thing it must eliminate is shovelling shit by hand. There are still workers today, mainly but not only in India, whose livelihood depends on this humiliation (see ‘A lifetime in muck’, page 10). On the one hand we have porcelain bowls and sewerage connections costing hundreds of dollars, buoyed up by an industry of civil engineering, plumbing, bathroom fixtures and municipal subsidies; and on the other, for poorer citizens, too often nothing at all. But since everyone has to defecate somewhere, there remains a ‘ job’ of clearing the muck away. One of the evils of ‘open defecation’ is that it keeps in existence a class of people to whom this job has been traditionally assigned. Here is a killer argument for decent toilets: better facilities, better jobs.
Intermediate industries have come into being around sanitation – including in India. Back in the 1990s, an NGO called the Ramakrishna Mission set its youth groups the task of cultivating demand for toilets in the densely settled district of Medinapur, West Bengal (eight million population). Motivators visited households as many times as it took to put across their message; and production centres were set up with starter funds where masons (female and male) were employed to manufacture toilet pans and slabs. Prices began at $7.40 and rose to $74. Loans were on offer to those who put down half the price. By the early 2000s, bicycle rickshaw carts delivering toilets to customers were a routine sight on local roads. By 2006, almost every household in Medinapur had installed a toilet. Hundreds of women and men have been trained in a new occupation and earn a good living.
Other examples could be cited, with demand for toilets and supply of an affordable and appealing item actively promoted in tandem. But thanks to most governments’ indifference, corporate disdain, and lacklustre donor engagement, they are not as easy to find as they should be. There is no one ‘toilet fix’ waiting to be rolled out to solve the global sanitation crisis, but there are many promising approaches and ‘lessons learned’. Openness is needed to quell the Great Distaste and get a new Sanitary Revolution moving, with the same resources and political push committed 150 years ago to solve London’s crisis. Let us hope that it will not take a rash of epidemics, stinks, and dying rivers to help it on its way.

Way off course: the Millennium Goal for Sanitation

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were established at a special UN Millennium Summit in 2000, but the goal for sanitation came later. This is another example where ‘sanitation’ was originally subsumed by ‘water’ – and ignored. A goal of halving by 2015 the numbers of people without access to sanitation in 1990 was added to the identical goal for water at the Johannesburg Earth Summit in 2002 – but only after intense lobbying. At present, it is one of the most off-track goals in the pack. In sub-Saharan Africa, on current progress, the MDG will not be met until 2076, indicating the neglect in which sanitation still languishes. The numbers of those without toilets barely alter over the years because the rate of toilet take-up barely matches that of population growth in the places that matter. Failure post-2002 to mobilize the necessary political will led to the UN declaration of 2008 as the International Year of Sanitation, in an effort to galvanize effort and resources behind the MDG. As can be seen below, even if it were met, vast numbers of people would still be toilet-less.

Growth in sanitation coverage, per cent, 1990-2015

Source: WHO and UNICEF (2006) Meeting the MDG Drinking Water and Sanitation Targets: the urban and rural challenge of the decade, WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme, Geneva and New York.

Maggie Black and Ben Fawcett, The Last Taboo, Earthscan, London, 2008.
Barbara Evans, Securing Sanitation: the compelling case to address the crisis, Stockholm International Water Institute, 2005.
Marion W Jenkins and Steven Sugden, Rethinking Sanitation, Occasional Paper 27, Human Development Report, UNDP, New York, 2006.
Andry Ramanantsoa, Rapport Finale: Capitalisation et recherche de solutions sur les latrines à Madagascar, WaterAid Madagascar, 2004.

This first appeared in our award-winning magazine - to read more, subscribe from just £7

http://newint.org/features/2008/08/01/keynote-toilets/

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Save it for the children... save it for the future generations

THE WOLVES

Beautiful. Canadian Lynx

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Population and the Environment: The Global Challenge

Don Hinrichsen and Bryant Robey

articlehighlights

Rising population growth can lessen our quality of life because it:

destroys resources, such as water and forests, needed to sustain us
slows the dynamics of a healthy economy
decreases the level of biodiversity upon which we depend

October 2000

Shinjuku ward of Tokyo, Japan at night. Population stabilization and resource conservation will lead to the challenges of sustainability. Photo: Zaida MontaÃ±ana. December 2005.

The challenge: provide for increasing populations without destroying the environment.

As the century begins, natural resources are under increasing pressure, threatening public health and development. Water shortages, soil exhaustion, loss of forests, air and water pollution, and degradation of coastlines afflict many areas. As the world’s population grows, improving living standards without destroying the environment is a global challenge.
Most developed economies currently consume resources much faster than they can regenerate. Most developing countries with rapid population growth face the urgent need to improve living standards. As we humans exploit nature to meet present needs, are we destroying resources needed for the future?

Environment getting worse

About 3 million die from pollution each year.

In the past decade in every environmental sector, conditions have either failed to improve, or they are worsening:

Public health:
Unclean water, along with poor sanitation, kills over 12 million people each year, most in developing countries. Air pollution kills nearly 3 million more. Heavy metals and other contaminants also cause widespread health problems.

Amount of land lost to farming by degradation equals 2/3 of North America.

Food supply:
Will there be enough food to go around? In 64 of 105 developing countries studied by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization, the population has been growing faster than food supplies. Population pressures have degraded some 2 billion hectares of arable land — an area the size of Canada and the U.S.

Freshwater:
The supply of freshwater is finite, but demand is soaring as population grows and use per capita rises. By 2025, when world population is projected to be 8 billion, 48 countries containing 3 billion people will face shortages.
Coastlines and oceans:
Half of all coastal ecosystems are pressured by high population densities and urban development. A tide of pollution is rising in the world’s seas. Ocean fisheries are being overexploited, and fish catches are down.

The demand for forest products exceeds sustainable consumption by 25%.

Forests:
Nearly half of the world’s original forest cover has been lost, and each year another 16 million hectares are cut, bulldozed, or burned. Forests provide over US$400 billion to the world economy annually and are vital to maintaining healthy ecosystems. Yet, current demand for forest products may exceed the limit of sustainable consumption by 25%.

2/3 of the world’s species are in decline.

Biodiversity:
The earth’s biological diversity is crucial to the continued vitality of agriculture and medicine — and perhaps even to life on earth itself. Yet human activities are pushing many thousands of plant and animal species into extinction. Two of every three species is estimated to be in decline.
Global climate change:
The earth’s surface is warming due to greenhouse gas emissions, largely from burning fossil fuels. If the global temperature rises as projected, sea levels would rise by several meters, causing widespread flooding. Global warming also could cause droughts and disrupt agriculture.

Toward a livable future

How people preserve or abuse the environment could largely determine whether living standards improve or deteriorate. Growing human numbers, urban expansion, and resource exploitation do not bode well for the future. Without practicing sustainable development, humanity faces a deteriorating environment and may even invite ecological disaster.

Taking action:
Many steps toward sustainability can be taken today. These include: using energy more efficiently, managing cities better, phasing out subsidies that encourage waste, [etc.]

The world must sustain 1 billion more people every 13 years.

Stabilizing population:
While population growth has slowed, the absolute number of people continues to increase — by about 1 billion every 13 years. Slowing population growth would help improve living standards and would buy time to protect natural resources. In the long run, to sustain higher living standards, world population size must stabilize.

Less growth will provide time to solve sustainability problems.

Population and sustainable development

Environmentalists and economists increasingly agree that efforts to protect the environment and to achieve better living standards can be closely linked and are mutually reinforcing. Slowing the increase in population, especially in the face of rising per capita demand for natural resources, can take pressure off the environment and buy time to improve living standards on a sustainable basis.^3,8,11,12

As population growth slows, countries can invest more in education, health care, job creation, and other improvements that help boost living standards.¹¹ In turn, as individual income, savings, and investment rise, more resources become available that can boost productivity. This dynamic process has been identified as one of the key reasons that the economies of many Asian countries grew rapidly between 1960 and 1990.⁵

A dynamic economy also needs slower population growth.

In recent years fertility has been falling in many developing countries and, as a result, annual world population growth has fallen to about 1.4% in 2000 compared with about 2% in 1960. The UN estimated recently that population is growing by about 78 million per year, down from about 90 million estimated early in the 1990s.¹⁰ Still, at the current pace world population increases by about 1 billion every 13 years. World population surpassed 6 billion in 1999 and is projected to rise to over 8 billion by 2025.

In many countries, births far outnumber deaths, creating overpopulation.

Globally, fertility has fallen by half since the 1960s, to about three children per woman.¹⁰ In 65 countries, including 9 in the developing world, fertility rates have fallen below replacement level of about two children per woman.⁹ Nonetheless, fertility is above replacement level in 123 countries, and in some countries it is substantially above replacement level. In these countries the population continues to increase rapidly. About 1.7 billion people live in 47 countries where the fertility rate averages between three and five children per woman. Another 730 million people live in 44 countries where the average woman has five children or more.⁷

The rise in populations is mainly in developing nations.

Almost all population growth is in the developing world. As a result of differences in population growth, Europe’s population will decline from 13% to 7% of world population over the next quarter century, while that of sub-Saharan Africa will rise from 10% to 17%. The shares of other regions are projected to remain about the same as today.⁶

Parts of Africa will experience drastic water shortages by 2025.

As population and demand for natural resources continue to grow, environmental limits will become increasingly apparent.⁶ Water shortages are expected to affect nearly 3 billion people in 2025, with sub-Saharan Africa worst affected.² Many countries could avoid environmental crises if they took steps now to conserve and manage supplies and demand better, while slowing population growth by providing families and individuals with information and services needed to make informed choices about reproductive health.

Family planning is effective in stabilizing growth.

Family planning programs play a key role. When family planning information and services are widely available and accessible, couples are better able to achieve their fertility desires.⁴ “Even in adverse circumstance — low incomes, limited education, and few opportunities for women — family planning programs have meant slower population growth and improved family welfare,” the World Bank has noted.¹

Conclusion

If every country made a commitment to population stabilization and resource conservation, the world would be better able to meet the challenges of sustainable development. Practicing sustainable development requires a combination of wise public investment, effective natural resource management, cleaner agricultural and industrial technologies, less pollution, and slower population growth.

Conclusion: We risk destroying our standard of living if we don’t control population growth.

Worries about a “population bomb” may have lessened as fertility rates have fallen, but the world’s population is projected to continue expanding until the middle of the century. Just when it stabilizes and thus the level at which it stabilizes will have a powerful effect on living standards and the global environment. As population size continues to reach levels never before experienced, and per capita consumption rises, the environment hangs in the balance.

Editor’s Note (11/02): New York was the only city with a population of more than 10 million in 1950; By 2015 it is estimated there will be 21 cities in this category. Also, most urban population growth will likely occur in developing countries, which are not equipped to deal with the need for more transportation, housing, water, and sewers. Such magnitude of urban population increase is unprecedented in human history. (National Geographic Magazine, “Cities,” November, 2002).

Don Hinrichsen is a senior program officer with the United Nations Population Fund. He was former editor-in-chief of Ambio, the journal of the human environment published by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and the first editor-in-chief of the World Resources Report published by the World Resources Institute, the World Bank, UNEP and UNDP.
http://iwpr.net/what-we-do/iwpr-staff-and-offices
Bryant Robey is editor of Population Reports published by the Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, and author of many articles and monographs on population topics.
http://www.k4health.org/pr/staff.shtml

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Population and the Environment: The Global Challenge

learnmore links

Sixth extinction

Also on our site, Niles Eldredge explains why we are in the middle of an extinction event. http://www.actionbioscience.org/newfrontiers/eldredge2.html

Population articles

» Population Reports is published by the Population Information Program, Center for Communication Programs, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health. The most current issue is available on-line at:
http://www.k4health.org/toolkits/INFO-publications/population-reports
» Ecofuture’s website offers a number of articles to read about population and its impact on the environment, such as “How Many People Should the Earth Support?”
http://www.ecofuture.org/pop/info.html

Sprawl City

This site is based on the Bureau of Census data on Urbanized Areas. “A website about consumption growth and population growth and their roles in the urban sprawl that destroys natural habitat and farmland around U.S. cities.”
http://www.sprawlcity.org/index.html

Negative Population Growth

News, action alerts, population facts.
http://www.npg.org

UNFPA

United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) presents information on the state of world population. http://www.unfpa.org/swp/2001/english/index.html

UNIFEM

The United Nations Development Fund for Women web site presents statistics about the status of the world’s women. Find data on reproductive rights, violence, and health.
http://www.unifem.org

Waste not

Zero waste is the recycling of all materials back into nature or the marketplace in a manner that protects human health and the environment.
http://www.zerowasteamerica.org/

Pop Planet

A web site dedicated to population, health, and environment connections in different regions of the world.
http://PopPlanet.org/PopPlanet

The Fraying Web of Life

“World Resources 2000-2001: People and Ecosystems: The Fraying Web of Life” report presents “a comprehensive assessment of five of the world’s major ecosystems” (agriculture, coastal and marine, forest, freshwater, and grassland). It can be downloaded as a PDF file.
http://pubs.wri.org/pubs_description.cfm?PubID=3027

World population statistics links

A guide to online resources provided by the California State University’s Pollack Library.
http://guides.library.fullerton.edu/worldpop/

Population quiz

How much do you know about world population? Explanatory answers provided. Click on number 7 “Applied” on home page and choose “quiz” from the scroll down menu.
http://www.7revs.org/sevenrevs_content.html

Read a book

World Population: Challenges for the 21st Century by L. Bouvier and J. Bertrand (Seven Locks Press, 1999) examines patterns of demographic behavior and then looks at their potential impact on human societies in the 21st Century.

getinvolved links

What’s your congressmember’s record?

NumbersUSA provides an interactive USA map — click on a state and view the population issue record of your congressmember. Follow directions to send email to Congress with your views.
http://profiles.numbersusa.com

Campaign for Environmental Literacy

The Campaign for Environmental Literacy seeks to first secure and then significantly increase the amount of U.S. federal funding dedicated to environmental literacy. You can help.
http://www.FundEE.org/

Sustainability campaigns

You can take a stand by joining the Redefining Progress Campaign or other supporting other programs and activities. Also, use the “global footprint calculator” to see how you measure up and what you can do to help.
http://www.ecologicalfootprint.org/

Take action through Population Action International

You can choose from a number of activities such as emailing Congress, choosing an action alert, and becoming a member of PAI.
http://www.populationaction.org/Get_Involved/Index.shtml

Population Connection

Organization advocates reproductive choice and sex education. Provides voting records and updates on related legislation.
http://www.populationconnection.org/

Online Community Energy Opportunity Tool

The Rocky Mountain Institute (RMI) offers PDF fact sheets that illustrate the potential benefits of implementing energy efficiency within a community and household.
http://www.rmi.org/sitepages/pid171.php

educatorresources

ActionBioscience.org original lesson

This lesson has been written by a science educator to specifically accompany the above article. It includes article content and extension questions, as well as activity handouts for different grade levels.

Lesson Title: Our Population and Its Impact on the Planet
Levels: high school - undergraduate
Summary: This lesson examines the quality of life and ecological implications of overpopulation. Students can graph estimated population statistics, investigate local efforts in sustained development, speculate on lifestyle changes due to population growth… and more!
Download/view lesson.
(To open the lesson’s PDF file, you need Adobe Acrobat Reader free software.)

Lessons for middle school

The following links will take you to middle school lessons available on other web sites:

» Making a Cartogram
“Cartograms are visual ways of displaying statistical geographic information. They are a hybrid-cross between a graph and a map. Because of their visual nature these charts are easier for students to absorb and remember statistical geographical data.” The second link contains more detailed information on various types of cartograms. http://lessonopoly.org/node/7664 http://www.ncgia.ucsb.edu/projects/Cartogram_Central/types.html
» Nurturing an Environmental Ethic Students learn about “the nature, character, and processes of the immediate lifespace environment — natural and built (human-made) in nature.”
http://lessonopoly.org/node/7913

Useful links for educators

» Environmental Education Station
Teachers encounter a collection of course syllabi & suggested reading materials, and students choose among a variety of pages on the hottest environmental topics. A public domain photo library provides royalty-free pictures.
http://web.centre.edu/enviro
» Environmental Models
A collection of models which cover various aspects of environmental modeling.
http://www.shodor.org/master/environmental/

Useful links for student research

In addition to the links in the “learn more” section above:

» Population Math
A short explanation on how population is calculated mathematically.
http://whyfiles.org/096y6b/2.html
» United Nations Population Information Network (POPIN)
Features the latest news and links relating to population control throughout the world.
http://www.un.org/popin/
» World POPClock Projection
Contains monthly world population projections. Provided by the United States Census Bureau.
http://www.census.gov/cgi-bin/ipc/popclockw
» World Population and Demographic Data
Population data and estimates for world population. Includes annual growth rate and annual increase.
http://geography.about.com/cs/censuspopulation1/

articlereferences

Bulatao, R.A., Levin, A., Bos, E.R., and Green, C. “Effective family planning programs.” Washington, D.C., World Bank. p. 110.
Gardner-Outlaw, T. and Engelman, R. “Sustaining water, easing scarcity: A second update.” Washington, D.C., Population Action International, 1997. p. 20.
Green, C.P. “The environment and population growth: Decade for action.” Population Reports, Series M, No. 10. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Population Information Program, May 1992. p. 31.
Kumar, S. “Is development the best contraceptive? Evidences from Uttar Pradesh.” In: Gupta, K. and Pandey, A., eds. Population and Development in Uttar Pradesh. New Delhi, India, B.R. Publishing. p. 137-144.
Mason, A. “Will population change sustain the ‘Asian economic miracle’?” Analysis from the East-West Center 33: 1-8. Oct. 1997.
National Research Council P.O.P.P. and Committee on Population Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Beyond Six Billion: Forecasting the World’s Population. Bongaarts, J. and Bulatao, R.A. eds. Washington, D.C., National Academy Press, p. 258.
Population Reference Bureau (PRB). “2000 World population data sheet.” Washington, D.C., Population Reference Bureau, 2000.
Roodman, D.M. “The natural wealth of nations: Harnessing the market for the environment.” Worldwatch Environmental Alert Series. W.W. Norton & Co., 1998. p. 303.
United Nations Department of Public Information (DPI). “Earth summit + 5, backgrounder.” New York, United Nations, 1997.
United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA). “The state of the world population 1999.” Six Billion: A Time for Choices. Marshall, A., ed., New York, UNFPA, 1999. p. 76.
Upadhyay, U.D. and Robey, B. “Why family planning matters.” Population Reports, Series J, No. 49. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Population Information Program, Jul. 1999. p. 31.
World Bank. World development report 1992: Development and the environment. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1992. p. 308. http://www.actionbioscience.org/environment/hinrichsen_robey.html

Year	1983	1991	1993	1994	1995
International NGOs	30	72	127	124	128
Local NGOs	20	193	291	318	336

Sunday, October 4, 2015

Humanitarian Exchange Magazine

The Impact of Refugees on the Environment and Appropriate Responses

Practice & Policy Notes

The Addis Ababa Document on Refugees and Forced Population Displacements in Africa

Dear John

The myriad benefits of toilets, and why the world needs more of them.

By Sara Blask- Hong Kong

We need to talk about… toilets

Way off course: the Millennium Goal for Sanitation

Population and the Environment: The Global Challenge

Don Hinrichsen and Bryant Robey

articlehighlights

Environment getting worse

Toward a livable future

Population and sustainable development

Conclusion

Population and the Environment: The Global Challenge

learnmore links

Sixth extinction

Population articles

Sprawl City

Negative Population Growth

UNFPA

UNIFEM

Waste not

Pop Planet

The Fraying Web of Life

World population statistics links

Population quiz

Read a book

getinvolved links

What’s your congressmember’s record?

Campaign for Environmental Literacy

Sustainability campaigns

Take action through Population Action International

Population Connection

Online Community Energy Opportunity Tool

educatorresources

ActionBioscience.org original lesson

Lessons for middle school

Useful links for educators

Useful links for student research

articlereferences

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