i am

relaxation and scripts for self-help, personal change and fulfilment

I deserve to be,
I want to be,
I can be,
I will be,
I am.

If you want to change your life you need to change how you think and change what you do. Self-help, personal change, being happy: it's up to you. No-one else.
You decide. This is the first step. Self-help starts with you. Self-help and personal change starts with your realisation that it really is in your own hands, and your decision to do something about it.
Your own self-belief is the key to successful life-change, achievement, contentment, and happiness.
Your own mind, particularly positive suggestion and visualisation, will develop your self-belief, and your determination to make successful change to your life.
This page will help you begin to change the way you think, feel and act.
Visit it any time you want to boost your self-belief, to relax, and to regain control of your life and direction.
Print this page and put it above your mirror, above your bed, above your desk, anywhere you'll see it every day.
Make time - actually schedule some time in your planner or diary to do this. It will dramatically improve your mood, attitude, and approach to life, and therefore what you get from life.
Positive suggestion and visualisation, combined with deep relaxation, is an easy way to make powerful positive personal change.

Just going through this relaxation exercise alone will help to change and improve the way you feel. If you combine the relaxation techniques with a repeated script of positive statements, such as the 'I am' script below, you will begin change the way you think, and feel, and act, and all that life offers as a result.
The more you use the relaxation exercise and say or hear the script, then the greater and more sustainable will be the effect.
The time it takes to change depends on different people. Stick with it and it will become easier, more natural, more enjoyable, and it will work.

relaxation exercise

Sit or lie down comfortably. Properly comfortably. Straighten your back, put your shoulders back to open your rib-cage.
Relax your shoulder muscles particularly. Relax your whole body, and empty your mind.
Close your eyes (obviously open them when you need to read the next stage).
Take ten deep, slow breaths. Breathe from the pit of your stomach and feel your lungs filling.
Focus on your breathing. Feel it getting deeper and slower. Feel yourself relaxing and any tension drifting away.
Relax your shoulders and neck again.
Visualise yourself being happy, succeeding, winning, being loved, laughing, feeling good.
Relax your forehead, your mouth and your eyes.
Allow a gentle smile to appear on your face as you feel a calmness enter your mind.
Then say (out load ideally) the words below (a script for personal change) to yourself:

i am

I am good person.
I have integrity.
I do what is ethically right and good.
Whatever life puts before me will be useful experience that will make me stronger, wiser, and more tolerant.
I am strong enough to understand and make allowances for other people's weaknesses, and their behaviour towards me. Other people's behaviour is about them, not me.
I focus on the joy of living my life and helping others where and when I can.
I am what I eat and drink, so I eat and drink good things.
I am what I watch and play and listen, so I watch and play and listen to good positive things.
I take exercise which I enjoy. I walk when I don't need to drive or take the bus or train.
I smile and laugh whenever I can - life is good - getting caught in the rain reminds me that it is good to be alive to feel it.
I forgive other people. Deep down everyone is a good person, just like me.
I am a compassionate and loving, caring person.
I am a good person.
I am.

about relaxation, scripts and self-help

The use of scripts while in a deeply relaxed state is a ages-old method of gaining and maintaining control over our personal feelings and behaviours.
Relaxation combined with positive 'self-talk' enables self-help.
The use of scripts or strong statements while in a deeply relaxed state enables a 'conditioning' effect on our subconscious.
Changing our subconscious - our feelings and beliefs - increases our sense of calm and well-being, and also enables change in our conscious thoughts and behaviours. It's that simple.
Some people find it easier than others to relax deeply. It comes with practice.
If you find it difficult, allow yourself more time when going through the relaxation exercise. Create or put yourself into a quiet relaxing calm environment. Shut out noise and distractions. Lie down rather than sit.
When relaxing and emptying your mind it is natural for thoughts to arise - in which case simply acknowledge them gently and let them go - visualise them floating away like a balloon into the distance. Your ability to empty your mind and relax, free from thoughts, will improve with practice.
When you practice, you will increase the ease with which you can relax, and then you will find that you no longer need such a quiet environment. You will even find that you can achieve a deeply relaxed state in quite noisy stressful environments. Even sat at your desk at work.
Other methodologies and approaches refer to deep relaxation as 'meditation'. Commonly such methods are 'packaged' and surrounded by mystery or science. Don't be fooled. Anyone can do this. It's human nature, and instinctively accessible - free - to everyone.
Deep relaxation alone is good for the mind and body, without the use of scripted statements. Combining deep relaxation with good positive scripts is a powerful method of achieving greater happiness and for making positive personal change.
The use of repeating scripts (said or listened to) is ages-old as well. The principle is used in many timeless customs - some which are forces for good, others not so good - which are used to change or control feelings, including praying, chanting, singing, etc. Often these practices are combined with deep relaxation, meditation, trance, even hypnosis, again some for good aims and some not so good.
What I'm advocating here is the use of the same basic methodology - deep relaxation, combined with repeating strong statements - to achieve powerful personal change for the good, in the direction that you want.
If you are a coach or trainer you can help others with this type of personal change - see the personal change exercises ideas which use these relaxation, scripts and positive statements techniques.

using and changing scripts - what the 'i am' words mean

The 'I am' element alone is a powerful one because it embodies the sense of self-determination, which nobody and nothing can ever take away from you, and it emphasises the value of simply 'being'.
We each exist as a person of value and worth in our own right, irrespective of possessions and achievements. Accepting and reinforcing this concept is good for each of us. This, at its simplest level, is what 'I am' means.
"There is wisdom in accepting what you are. It is difficult to be what you are not. Being what you are doesn't require any effort. When you become wise, you accept yourself the way you are, and the complete acceptance of yourself becomes the complete acceptance of everyone else." (From 'The Mastery of Love' by Don Miguel Ruiz, with thanks to Allspirit.co.uk)
You can use the relaxation exercise, combined with a script, to change many aspects of your life and feelings.
You do this by adding, removing, or replacing statements in the script.
Keep the statements positive and in the present tense.
For example, if you want to be more confident, use a statement such as 'I am a confident person' rather than 'I will be a more confident person' or 'I will try to be a more confident person'.
If you want to stop smoking, use a statement such as 'I am a non-smoker, because I value my life and body' rather than 'I will try to give up smoking'.
If you do not want to give up smoking, merely to cut down, adjust the script accordingly, for example: 'I smoke only five/ten/fifteen cigarettes a day, because this is improving my health and my life' (better than smoking twenty or thirty day).
If you keep telling your sub-conscious that you 'are', then in time you will 'be'.
Use script statements that describe yourself as you want to be. Repeating positive scripts, combined with deep relaxation, will change your behaviour from deep within.

making tapes or script recordings

You can increase the ease of using scripts if you make a tape or CD recording of yourself reading your script.
You can then use the recording any time you want.
Using a recording also means you can relax completely while listening to the words, with no need to open your eyes to read.
You can also listen to your recorded script at bed-time, before you go to sleep every night, which is also an effective way to reach and change your sub-conscious feelings.

be assured...

Most people judge themselves against entirely artificial criteria. Material success is not what life is about.
You can change your frame of reference. You do not have to accept a frame of reference that others have given you.
Many of the most materially 'successful' people are deeply unhappy, yet they strive and search (unsuccessfully) even harder for more material success.
Most ordinary good, honest 'being' people are fooled into believing that what they have is not worth anything. Don't be fooled.
The answer to happiness and fulfilment is usually found in achieving a simple acceptance of, and joy of living, a good life.
Enjoy 'being' and living a good life.
Next time you get caught in the rain, or bump the car, or get a headache - enjoy being alive to feel it and experience it.

(With acknowledgements to Carole Byrd and Buddha Maitreya.)
http://www.businessballs.com/selfbelief.htm

Jessica Andrews - Who I Am

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jd9zYKLepCw

"Who I Am"

If I live to be a hundred
And never see the seven wonders
That'll be alright
If I don't make it to the big leagues
If I never win a Grammy
I'm gonna be just fine
Cause I know exactly who I am

I am Rosemary's granddaughter
The spitting image of my father
And when the day is done my momma's still my biggest fan
Sometimes I'm clueless and I'm clumsy
But I've got friends that love me
And they know just where I stand
It's all a part of me
And that's who I am

So when I make a big mistake
And when I fall flat on my face
I know I'll be alright
Should my tender heart be broken
I will cry those teardrops knowing
I will be just fine
Cause nothing changes who I am

I am Rosemary's granddaughter
The spitting image of my father
And when the day is done my momma's still my biggest fan
Sometimes I'm clueless and I'm clumsy
But I've got friends that love me
And they know just where I stand
It's all a part of me
And that's who I am

I'm a saint and I'm a sinner
I'm a loser; I'm a winner
I am steady and unstable
I'm young, but I am able

I am Rosemary's granddaughter
The spitting image of my father
And when the day is done my momma's still my biggest fan
Sometimes I'm clueless and I'm clumsy
But I've got friends that love me
And they know where I stand
It's all a part of me
And that's who I am

I am Rosemary's granddaughter
The spitting image of my father
And when the day is done my momma's still my biggest fan
Sometimes I'm clueless and I'm clumsy
But I've got friends that love me
And they know where I stand
It's all a part of me
And that's who I am
That's who I am

----------------

body language - basics and introduction

Body language is a powerful concept which successful people tend to understand well.
So can you.
The study and theory of body language has become popular in recent years because psychologists have been able to understand what we 'say' through our bodily gestures and facial expressions, so as to translate our body language, revealing its underlying feelings and attitudes.
Body Language is also referred to as 'non-verbal communications', and less commonly 'non-vocal communications'.
The term 'non-verbal communications' tends to be used in a wider sense, and all these terms are somewhat vague.
For the purposes of this article, the terms 'body language' and 'non-verbal communications' are broadly interchangeable. This guide also takes the view that body language/non-verbal communications is the study of how people communicate face-to-face aside from the spoken words themselves, and in this respect the treatment of the subject here is broader than typical body language guides limited merely to body positions and gestures.
If you carry out any serious analysis or discussion you should clarify the terminology in your own way to suit your purposes.
For example:
Does body language include facial expression and eye movement? - Usually, yes.
What about breathing and perspiration? - This depends on your definition of body language.
And while tone and pitch of voice are part of verbal signals, are these part of body language too? - Not normally, but arguably so, especially as you could ignore them if considering only the spoken words and physical gestures/expressions.
There are no absolute right/wrong answers to these questions. It's a matter of interpretation.
A good reason for broadening the scope of body language is to avoid missing important signals which might not be considered within a narrow definition of body language.
Nevertheless confusion easily arises if definitions and context are not properly established, for example:
It is commonly and carelessly quoted that 'non-verbal communications' and/or 'body language' account for up to 93% of the meaning that people take from any human communication. This statistic is actually a distortion based on Albert Mehrabian's research theory, which while itself is something of a cornerstone of body language research, certainly did not make such a sweeping claim.
Mehrabian's research findings in fact focused on communications with a strong emotional or 'feelings' element. Moreover the 93% non-verbal proportion included vocal intonation (paralinguistics), which are regarded by many as falling outside of the body language definition.
Care must therefore be exercised when stating specific figures relating to percentages of meaning conveyed, or in making any firm claims in relation to body language and non-verbal communications.
It is safe to say that body language represents a very significant proportion of meaning that is conveyed and interpreted between people. Many body language experts and sources seem to agree that that between 50-80% of all human communications are non-verbal. So while body language statistics vary according to situation, it is generally accepted that non-verbal communications are very important in how we understand each other (or fail to), especially in face-to-face and one-to-one communications, and most definitely when the communications involve an emotional or attitudinal element.
Body language is especially crucial when we meet someone for the first time.
We form our opinions of someone we meet for the first time in just a few seconds, and this initial instinctual assessment is based far more on what we see and feel about the other person than on the words they speak. On many occasions we form a strong view about a new person before they speak a single word.
Consequently body language is very influential in forming impressions on first meeting someone.
The effect happens both ways - to and from:

When we meet someone for the first time, their body language, on conscious and unconscious levels, largely determines our initial impression of them.
In turn when someone meets us for the first time, they form their initial impression of us largely from our body language and non-verbal signals.

And this two-way effect of body language continues throughout communications and relationships between people.
Body language is constantly being exchanged and interpreted between people, even though much of the time this is happening on an unconscious level.
Remember - while you are interpreting (consciously or unconsciously) the body language of other people, so other people are constantly interpreting yours.
The people with the most conscious awareness of, and capabilities to read, body language tend to have an advantage over those whose appreciation is limited largely to the unconscious.
You will shift your own awareness of body language from the unconscious into the conscious by learning about the subject, and then by practising your reading of non-verbal communications in your dealings with others.

body language is more than body positions and movements

Body language is not just about how we hold and move our bodies.
Body language potentially (although not always, depending on the definition you choose to apply) encompasses:

how we position our bodies
our closeness to and the space between us and other people (proxemics), and how this changes
our facial expressions
our eyes especially and how our eyes move and focus, etc
how we touch ourselves and others
how our bodies connect with other non-bodily things, for instance, pens, cigarettes, spectacles and clothing
our breathing, and other less noticeable physical effects, for example our heartbeat and perspiration

Body language tends not to include:

the pace, pitch, and intonation, volume, variation, pauses, etc., of our voice.

Arguably this last point should be encompassed by body language, because a lot happens here which can easily be missed if we consider merely the spoken word and the traditional narrow definition of body language or non-verbal communications.
Voice type and other audible signals are typically not included in body language because they are audible 'verbal' signals rather than physical visual ones, nevertheless the way the voice is used is a very significant (usually unconscious) aspect of communication, aside from the bare words themselves.
Consequently, voice type is always important to consider alongside the usual body language factors.
Similarly breathing and heartbeat, etc., are typically excluded from many general descriptions of body language, but are certainly part of the range of non-verbal bodily actions and signals which contribute to body language in its fullest sense.
More obviously, our eyes are a vital aspect of our body language.
Our reactions to other people's eyes - movement, focus, expression, etc - and their reactions to our eyes - contribute greatly to mutual assessment and understanding, consciously and unconsciously.
With no words at all, massive feeling can be conveyed in a single glance. The metaphor which describes the eyes of two lovers meeting across a crowded room is not only found in old romantic movies. It's based on scientific fact - the strong powers of non-verbal communications.
These effects - and similar powerful examples - have existed in real human experience and behaviour for thousands of years.
The human body and our instinctive reactions have evolved to an amazingly clever degree, which many of us ignore or take for granted, and which we can all learn how to recognize more clearly if we try.
Our interpretation of body language, notably eyes and facial expressions, is instinctive, and with a little thought and knowledge we can significantly increase our conscious awareness of these signals: both the signals we transmit, and the signals in others that we observe.
Doing so gives us a significant advantage in life - professionally and personally - in our dealings with others.
Body language is not just reading the signals in other people.
Importantly, understanding body language enables better self-awareness and self-control too.
We understand more about other people's feelings and meanings, and we also understand more about these things in ourselves.
When we understand body language we become better able to refine and improve what our body says about us, which generates a positive improvement in the way we feel, the way we perform, and what we achieve.

body language definitions

As explained, the terms body language and non-verbal communications are rather vague.
So what is body language? And more usefully, what might we regard it to be, if we are to make the most of studying and using it?
The Oxford English Dictionary (revised 2005) definition is:
"body language - noun - the conscious and unconscious movements and postures by which attitudes and feelings are communicated [for example]: his intent was clearly expressed in his body language."
The Oxford Business English Dictionary offers a slightly different definition. Appropriately and interestingly the Oxford Business English Dictionary emphasizes the sense that body language can be used as a tool, rather than it being an involuntary effect with no particular purpose:
"body language - noun - the process of communicating what you are feeling or thinking by the way you place and move your body rather than by words [for example]: The course trains sales people in reading the customer's body language."
The OED dictionary definition of kinesics - the technical term for the study of body language (and more loosely of body language itself) - depends on the interpretation of 'non-verbal communication':
"kinesics - the study of the way in which certain body movements and gestures serve as a form of non-verbal communication... [and] body movements and gestures regarded as a form of non-verbal communication."
Body language is more than those brief descriptions.

Body language certainly also encompasses where the body is in relation to other bodies (often referred to as 'personal space').
Body language certainly also includes very small bodily movements such as facial expressions and eye movements.
Body language also arguably covers all that we communicate through our bodies apart from the spoken words (thereby encompassing breathing, perspiration, pulse, blood-pressure, blushing, etc.)

In this respect, standard dictionary definitions don't always describe body language fully and properly.
We could define body language more fully as:
"Body language is the unconscious and conscious transmission and interpretation of feelings, attitudes, and moods, through:

body posture, movement, physical state, position and relationship to other bodies, objects and surroundings,
facial expression and eye movement,

(and this transmission and interpretation can be quite different to the spoken words)."

Words alone - especially emotional words (or words used in emotional situations) - rarely reflect full or true meaning and motive.
We find clues to additional or true meaning in body language.
Being able to 'read' body language therefore helps us greatly:

to know how people feel and what they mean, and
to understand better how people might be perceiving our own non-verbal signals, and (often overlooked)
to understand ourselves better, deeper than the words we hear ourselves saying.

body language - background and history

Philosophers and scientists have connected human physical behaviour with meaning, mood and personality for thousands of years, but only in living memory has the study of body language become as sophisticated and detailed as it is today.
Body language studies and written works on the subject are very sparse until the mid-1900s.
The first known experts to consider aspects of body language were probably the ancient Greeks, notably Hippocrates and Aristotle, through their interest in human personality and behaviour, and the Romans, notably Cicero, relating gestures to feelings and communications. Much of this early interest was in refining ideas about oration - speech-making - given its significance to leadership and government.
Isolated studies of body language appeared in more recent times, for example Francis Bacon in Advancement of Learning, 1605, explored gestures as reflection or extension of spoken communications. John Bulwer's Natural History of the Hand published in 1644, considered hand gestures. Gilbert Austin's Chironomia in 1806 looked at using gestures to improve speech-making.
Charles Darwin in the late 1800s could be regarded as the earliest expert to have made serious scientific observation about body language, but there seems little substantial development of ideas for at least the next 150 years.
Darwin's work pioneered much ethological thinking. Ethology began as the science of animal behaviour. It became properly established during the early 1900s and increasingly extends to human behaviour and social organization. Where ethology considers animal evolution and communications, it relates strongly to human body language. Ethologists have progressively applied their findings to human behaviour, including body language, reflecting the evolutionary origins of much human non-verbal communication - and society's growing acceptance of evolutionary rather than creationist theory. Austrian zoologist and 1973 Nobel Prizewinner Konrad Lorenz (1903-89) was a founding figure in ethology. Desmond Morris, author of The Naked Ape, discussed below, is an ethologist, as is the evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins (b. 1941) a leading modern thinker in the field. Ethology, like psychology, is an over-arching science which continues to clarify the understanding of body language.
The popular and accessible study of body language as we know it today is very recent.
In his popular 1971 book 'Body Language', Julius Fast (1919-2008) wrote: "...kinesics [body language and its study] is still so new as a science that its authorities can be counted on the fingers of one hand..."
Julius Fast was an American award winning writer of fiction and non-fiction work dealing especially with human physiology and behaviour. His book Body Language was among the first to bring the subject to a mainstream audience.
Significantly the references in Julius Fast's book (Birdwhistell, Goffman, Hall, Mehrabian, Scheflen, etc - see body language references and books below) indicate the freshness of the subject in 1971. All except one of Julius Fast's cited works are from the 1950s and 1960s.
The exception among Fast's contemporary influences was Charles Darwin, and specifically his book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, written in 1872, which is commonly regarded as the beginnings of the body language science, albeit not recognised as such then.
Sigmund Freud and others in the field of psychoanalysis - in the late 1800s and early 1900s - would have had good awareness of many aspects of body language, including personal space, but they did not focus on non-verbal communications concepts or develop body language theories in their own right. Freud and similar psychoanalysts and psychologists of that time were focused on behaviour and therapeutic analysis rather than the study of non-verbal communications per se.
A different view of human behaviour related to and overlapping body language, surfaced strongly in Desmond Morris's 1967 book The Naked Ape, and in follow-up books such as Intimate Behaviour, 1971. Morris, a British zoologist and ethologist, linked human behaviour - much of it concerned with communications - to human 'animalistic' evolution. His work remains a popular and controversial perspective for understanding people's behaviours, and while his theories did not focus strongly on body language, Morris's popularity in the late 1960s and 1970s contributed significantly to the increasing interest among people beyond the scientific community - for a better understanding of how and why we feel and act and communicate.
An important aspect of body language is facial expression, which is arguably one part of body language for which quite early 'scientific' thinking can be traced:
Physiognomy is an obscure and related concept to body language. Physiognomy refers to facial features and expressions which were/are said indicate the person's character or nature, or ethnic origin.
The word physiognomy is derived from medieval Latin, and earlier Greek (phusiognominia), which originally meant (the art or capability of) judging a person's nature from his/her facial features and expressions. The ancient roots of this concept demonstrate that while body language itself is a recently defined system of analysis, the notion of inferring human nature or character from facial expression is extremely old.
Kinesics (pronounced 'kineesicks' with stress on the 'ee') is the modern technical word for body language, and more scientifically the study of body language.
The word kinesics was first used in English in this sense in the 1950s, deriving from the Greek word kinesis, meaning motion, and seems to have first been used by Dr Ray Birdwhistell, an American 1950s researcher and writer on body language. (See references).
The introduction of a new technical word - (in this case, kinesics) - generally comes after the establishment of the subject it describes, which supports the assertion that the modern concept of body language - encompassing facial expressions and personal space - did not exist until the 1950s.
Proxemics is the technical term for the personal space aspect of body language. The word was devised in the late 1950s or early 1960s by Edward Twitchell Hall, an American anthropologist. The word is Hall's adaptation of the word proximity, meaning closeness or nearness. (See personal space.)
From the word kinesics, Ray Birdwhistell coined the term kine to refer to a single body language signal. This is not to be confused with the ancient and same word kine, meaning a group of cows. Neither word seems to have caught on in a big way, which in one way is a pity, but in another way probably makes matters simpler for anyone interested in the body language of cows.
The Greek word kinesis is also a root word of kinaesthetics, which is the 'K' in the VAK ('see hear feel') learning styles model.
Kinaesthetics (also known as kinesthetics) in the study of learning styles, is related to some of the principles of body language, in terms of conveying meaning and information via physical movement and experience.
Body language is among many branches of science and education which seek to interpret and exploit messages and meaning from the 'touchy-feely' side of life.
For example, the concepts of experiential learning, games and exercises, and love and spirituality at work - are all different perspectives and attempts to unlock and develop people's potential using ideas centred around kinaesthetics, as distinct from the more tangible and easily measurable areas of facts, figures words and logic.
These and similar methodologies do not necessarily reference body language directly, but there are very strong inter-connections.
Bloom's Taxonomy, and Kolb's Learning Styles are also helpful perspectives in appreciating the significance of kinaesthetics, and therefore body language, in life and work today.
The communications concepts of NLP (Neuro-linguistic Programming) and Transactional Analysis are closely dependent on understanding body language, NLP especially.

body language - nature or nurture?

Body language is part of human evolution, but as with many other aspects of human behaviour, the precise mixture of genetic (inherited) and environmental (learned or conditioned) influences is not known, and opinions vary.
Julius Fast noted this, especially regarding facial expressions. To emphasise the shifting debate he cited for example:

Darwin's belief that human facial expressions were similar among humans of all cultures, due to evolutionary theory.
Bruner and Taguiri's (see references) opposing views - in the early 1950s, after thirty years of research, they largely rejected the notion that facial expressions were inborn.
and Ekman, Friesan and Sorensen's findings (see references) - in 1969, having discovered consistent emotional-facial recognition across widely diverse cultural groups, which supported Darwin's evolutionary-centred ideas.

The discussion has continued in a similar vein to the modern day - studies 'proving' genetic or environmental cause - 'nature' or 'nurture' - for one aspect of body language or another.
The situation is made more complex when one considers the genetic (inherited) capability or inclination to learn body language. Is this nature or nurture?
It's both.
Body language is partly genetic (inborn - 'nature') - hugely so in certain aspects of body language - and partly environmental (conditioned/learned - 'nurture').
Some body language is certainly genetically inherited and consistent among all humans. Other body language is certainly not.
The use and recognition of certain fundamental facial expressions are now generally accepted to be consistent and genetically determined among all humans regardless of culture.
However the use and recognition of less fundamental physical gestures (hand movements for example, or the winking of an eye), and aspects of personal space distances, are now generally accepted to be environmentally determined (learned, rather than inherited), which is significantly dependent on local society groups and cultures.
Certain vocal intonation speech variations (if body language is extended to cover everything but the spoken words) also fall within this environmentally determined category. (See the 'other audible signals' section.)
In summary, we can be certain that body language (namely the conscious and unconscious sending and receiving of non-verbal signals) is partly inborn, and partly learned or conditioned.
Body language is part 'nature' and part 'nurture'.

body language and evolution

The evolutionary perspectives of body language are fascinating, in terms of its purpose and how it is exploited, which in turn feeds back into the purpose of body language at conscious and unconscious levels.
Human beings tend to lie, deceive, manipulate, and pretend. It's in our nature to do this, if only to a small degree in some folk.
For various reasons people intentionally and frequently mask their true feelings. (Transactional Analysis theory is very useful in understanding more about this.)
In expectation of these 'masking' tendencies in others, humans try to imagine what another person has in their mind. The need to understand what lies behind the mask obviously increases according to the importance of the relationship.
Body language helps us to manage and guard against these tendencies, and also - significantly especially in flirting/dating/mating rituals - body language often helps people to communicate and resolve relationship issues when conscious behaviour and speech fails to do so.
Body language has evolved in spite of human awareness and conscious intelligence: rather like a guardian angel, body language can help take care of us, connecting us to kindred souls, and protecting us from threats.
While the importance of body language in communications and management, etc., has become a popular interest and science in the last few decades, human beings have relied on body language instinctively in many ways for many thousands of years.
Early natural exponents of interpreting body language were for example the poker players of the American Wild West. The winners had not only to be handy with a six-shooter, but also skilled in reading other people's non-verbal signals, and controlling their own signals.
Before these times, explorers and tribal leaders had to be able to read the body language of potential foes - to know whether to trust or defend or attack.
Earlier than this, our cavemen ancestors certainly needed to read body language, if only because no other language existed.
Humans have also learned to read the body language of animals (and vice-versa), although humans almost certainly had greater skills in this area a long time ago. Shepherds, horse-riders and animal trainers throughout time and still today have good capabilities in reading animal body language, which for many extends to the human variety. Monty Roberts, the real life 'Horse Whisperer' is a good example.
Body language, and the reading of non-verbal communications and feelings, are in our genes. Were these factors not in our genes, we would not be here today.
On which point:
Women tend to have better perception and interpretation of body language than men. This is perhaps a feature of evolutionary survival, since females needed good body language skills to reduce their physical vulnerability to males and the consequential threat to life, limb and offspring. Females might not be so physically vulnerable in modern times, but their body language capabilities generally continue typically to be stronger than the male of the species. Thus, women tend to be able to employ body language (for sending and interpreting signals) more effectively than men.
Katherine Benziger's theories of brain types and thinking styles provides useful additional perspective. Women tend to have more empathic sensitivity than men, which naturally aids body language awareness and capabilities. Aside from gender differences, men and women with strong empathic sensitivity (typically right-basal or rear brain bias) tend to be better at picking up body language signals.

the six universal facial expressions - recognized around the world

It is now generally accepted that certain basic facial expressions of human emotion are recognized around the world - and that the use and recognition of these expressions is genetically inherited rather than socially conditioned or learned.
While there have been found to be minor variations and differences among obscurely isolated tribes-people, the following basic human emotions are generally used, recognized, and part of humankind's genetic character:
These emotional face expressions are:

Happiness
Sadness
Fear
Disgust
Surprise
Anger

Charles Darwin was first to make these claims in his book The Expressions of the Emotions in Man and Animals, published in 1872. This book incidentally initially far outsold The Origin of Species, such was its wide (and controversial) appeal at the time.
Darwin's assertions about genetically inherited facial expressions remained the subject of much debate for many years.
In the 1960s a Californian psychiatrist and expert in facial expressions, Paul Ekman, (with Sorenson and Friesen - see references) conducted and published extensive studies with people of various cultures to explore the validity of Darwin's theory - that certain facial expressions and man's ability to recognize them are inborn and universal among people. Ekman's work notably included isolated tribes-people who could not have been influenced by Western media and images, and essentially proved that Darwin was right - i.e., that the use and recognition of facial expressions to convey certain basic human emotions is part of human evolved nature, genetically inherited, and not dependent on social learning or conditioning.

body language analysis

Body language is instinctively interpreted by us all to a limited degree, but the subject is potentially immensely complex. Perhaps infinitely so, given that the human body is said to be capable of producing 700,000 different movements (Hartland and Tosh, 2001 - see references).
As with other behavioural sciences, the study of body language benefited from the development of brain-imaging technology in the last part of the 20th century. This dramatically accelerated the research and understanding into connections between the brain, feelings and thoughts, and body movement. We should expect to see this effect continuing and providing more solid science for body language theory, much of which remains empirical, i.e., based on experience and observation, rather than scientific test.
Given the potential for confusion, here are some considerations when analysing body language:

context

Body language also depends on context: body language in a certain situation might not mean the same in another.
Some 'body language' isn't what it seems at all, for example:

Someone rubbing their eye might have an irritation, rather than being tired - or disbelieving, or upset.
Someone with crossed arms might be keeping warm, rather than being defensive.
Someone scratching their nose might actually have an itch, rather than concealing a lie.

sufficient samples/evidence

A single body language signal isn't as reliable as several signals:
As with any system of evidence, 'clusters' of body language signals provide much more reliable indication of meaning than one or two signals in isolation.
Avoid interpreting only single signals. Look for combinations of signals which support an overall conclusion, especially for signals which can mean two or more quite different things.

culture/ethnicity

Certain body language is the same in all people, for example smiling and frowning (and see the six universally recognizable facial expressions above), but some body language is specific to a culture or ethnic group.
See examples of cultural body language differences below.
Awareness of possible cultural body language differences is especially important in today's increasingly mixed societies.
Management and customer service staff are particularly prone to misreading or reacting inappropriately to body language signals from people of different ethnic backgrounds, a situation made worse because this sort of misunderstanding tends to peak when emotions are high.
Personal space preferences (distances inside which a person is uncomfortable when someone encroaches) can vary between people of different ethnicity.
In general this article offers interpretations applicable for Western culture.
If you can suggest any different ethnic interpretations of body language please send them and I'll broaden the guide accordingly.

body language is relative to age and gender

Many body language signals are relative.
A gesture by one person in a certain situation can carry far more, or very little meaning, compared to the same gesture used by a different person in a different situation.
Young men for example often display a lot of pronounced gestures because they are naturally energetic, uninhibited and supple. Older women, relatively, are less energetic, adopt more modest postures, and are prevented by clothing and upbringing from exhibiting very pronounced gestures.
So when assessing body language - especially the strength of signals and meanings - it's important to do so in relative terms, considering the type of person and situation involved.

faking/deception

Some people artificially control their outward body language to give the impression they seek to create at the time.
A confident firm handshake, or direct eye contact, are examples of signals which can be quite easily be 'faked' - usually temporarily, but sometimes more consistently.
However while a degree of faking is possible, it is not possible for someone to control or suppress all outgoing signals.
This is an additional reason to avoid superficial analysis based on isolated signals, and to seek as many indicators as possible, especially subtle clues when suspecting things might not be what they seem. Politicians and manipulative salespeople come to mind for some reason.
Looking for 'micro gestures' (pupils contract, an eyebrow lifts, corner of the mouth twitch) can help identify the true meaning and motive behind one or two strong and potentially false signals.
These micro gestures are very small, difficult to spot and are subconscious, but we cannot control them, hence their usefulness.

boredom, nervousness and insecurity signals

Many body language signals indicate negative feelings such as boredom, disinterest, anxiousness, insecurity, etc.
The temptation on seeing such signals is to imagine a weakness on the part of the person exhibiting them.
This can be so, however proper interpretation of body language should look beyond the person and the signal - and consider the situation, especially if you are using body language within personal development or management. Ask yourself:
What is causing the negative feelings giving rise to the negative signals?
It is often the situation, not the person - for example, here are examples of circumstances which can produce negative feelings and signals in people, often even if they are strong and confident:

dominance of a boss or a teacher or other person perceived to be in authority
overloading a person with new knowledge or learning
tiredness
stress caused by anything
cold weather or cold conditions
lack of food and drink
illness or disability
alcohol or drugs
being in a minority or feeling excluded
unfamiliarity - newness - change

Ask yourself, when analysing body language:
Are there external factors affecting the mood and condition of the individual concerned?
Do not jump to conclusions - especially negative ones - using body language analysis alone.

body language - translation of gestures, signs and other factors - quick reference guide

When translating body language signals into feelings and meanings remember that one signal does not reliably indicate a meaning.
Clusters of signals more reliably indicate meaning.
This is a general guide. Body language should not be used alone for making serious decisions about people.
Body language is one of several indicators of mood, meaning and motive.
This is a guide, not an absolutely reliable indicator, and this applies especially until you've developed good capabilities of reading body language signs.
Some of these signs have obvious meanings; others not so.
Even 'obvious' signs can be missed - especially if displayed as subtle movements in a group of people and if your mind is on other things - so I make no apology for including 'obvious' body language in this guide.
Also remember that cultural differences influence body language signals and their interpretation. This guide is based on 'Western World' and North European behaviours. What may be 'obvious' in one culture can mean something different in another culture.

body language signs translation

The body language signals below are grouped together according to parts of the body.
Left and right are for the person giving the signals and making the movements.
This is a summary of the main body language signals. More signals and meanings will be added.
Suggest any other signals that you wish to know, and I'll add them.

body language warning
Body language is not an exact science.
No single body language sign is a reliable indicator.
Understanding body language involves the interpretation of several consistent signals to support or indicate a particular conclusion.

eyes - body language

Our eyes are a very significant aspect of the non-verbal signals we send to others.
To a lesser or greater extent we all 'read' people's eyes without knowing how or why, and this ability seems to be inborn.
Eyes - and especially our highly developed awareness of what we see in other people's eyes - are incredible.
For example we know if we have eye contact with someone at an almost unbelievable distance. Far too far away to be able to see the detail of a person's eyes - 30-40 metres away or more sometimes - we know when there is eye contact. This is an absolutely awesome capability when you think about it.
Incredibly also, we can see whether another person's eyes are focused on us or not, and we can detect easily the differences between a 'glazed over' blank stare, a piercing look, a moistening eye long before tears come, and an awkward or secret glance.
We probably cannot describe these and many other eye signals, but we recognise them when we see them and we know what they mean.
When we additionally consider the eyelids, and the flexibility of the eyes to widen and close, and for the pupils to enlarge or contract, it becomes easier to understand how the eyes have developed such potency in human communications.
A note about eyes looking right and left..
(Left and right are for the person giving the signals and making the movements)
Eyes tend to look right when the brain is imagining or creating, and left when the brain is recalling or remembering. This relates to right and left sides of the brain - in this context broadly the parts of the brain handling creativity/feelings (right) and facts/memory (left). This is analysed in greater detail below, chiefly based on NLP theory developed in the 1960s. Under certain circumstances 'creating' can mean fabrication or lying, especially (but not always - beware), when the person is supposed to be recalling facts. Looking right when stating facts does not necessarily mean lying - it could for example mean that the person does not know the answer, and is talking hypothetically or speculating or guessing.

signal	part of body	possible meaning(s)	detailed explanation
Left and right are for the person giving the signals and making the movements.
looking right (generally)	eyes	creating, fabricating, guessing, lying, storytelling	Creating here is basically making things up and saying them. Depending on context this can indicate lying, but in other circumstances, for example, storytelling to a child, this would be perfectly normal. Looking right and down indicates accessing feelings, which again can be a perfectly genuine response or not, depending on the context, and to an extent the person.
looking left (generally)	eyes	recalling, remembering, retrieving 'facts'	Recalling and and then stating 'facts' from memory in appropriate context often equates to telling the truth. Whether the 'facts' (memories) are correct is another matter. Left downward looking indicates silent self-conversation or self-talk, typically in trying to arrive at a view or decision.
looking right and up	eyes	visual imagining, fabrication, lying	Related to imagination and creative (right-side) parts of the brain, this upwards right eye-movement can be a warning sign of fabrication if a person is supposed to be recalling and stating facts.
looking right sideways	eyes	imagining sounds	Sideways eye movements are believed to indicate imagining (right) or recalling (left) sounds, which can include for example a person imagining or fabricating what another person has said or could say.
looking right and down	eyes	accessing feelings	This is a creative signal but not a fabrication - it can signal that the person is self-questioning their feelings about something. Context particularly- and other signals - are important for interpreting more specific meaning about this signal.
looking left and up	eyes	recalling images truthfulness	Related to accessing memory in the brain, rather than creating or imagining. A reassuring sign if signalled when the person is recalling and stating facts.
looking left sideways	eyes	recalling or remembering sounds	Looking sideways suggests sounds; looking left suggests recalling or remembering - not fabricating or imagining. This therefore could indicate recalling what has been said by another person.
looking left down	eyes	self-talking, rationalizing	Thinking things through by self-talk - concerning an outward view, rather than the inward feelings view indicated by downward right looking.
direct eye contact (when speaking)	eyes	honesty - or faked honesty	Direct eye contact is generally regarded as a sign of truthfulness, however practised liars know this and will fake the signal.
direct eye contact (when listening)	eyes	attentiveness, interest, attraction	Eyes which stay focused on the speakers eyes, tend to indicate focused interested attention too, which is normally a sign of attraction to the person and/or the subject.
widening eyes	eyes	interest, appeal, invitation	Widening the eyes generally signals interest in something or someone, and often invites positive response. Widened eyes with raised eyebrows can otherwise be due to shock, but aside from this, widening eyes represents an opening and welcoming expression. In women especially widened eyes tend to increase attractiveness, which is believed by some body language experts to relate to the eye/face proportions of babies, and the associated signals of attraction and prompting urges to protect and offer love and care, etc.
rubbing eye or eyes	eyes	disbelief, upset, or tiredness	Rubbing eyes or one eye can indicate disbelief, as if checking the vision, or upset, in which the action relates to crying, or tiredness, which can be due boredom, not necessarily a need for sleep. If the signal is accompanied by a long pronounced blink, this tends to support the tiredness interpretation.
eye shrug	eyes	frustration	An upward roll of the eyes signals frustration or exasperation, as if looking to the heavens for help.
pupils dilated (enlarged)	eyes	attraction, desire	The pupil is the black centre of the eye which opens or closes to let in more or less light. Darkness causes pupils to dilate. So too, for some reason does seeing something appealing or attractive. The cause of the attraction depends on the situation. In the case of sexual attraction the effect can be mutual - dilated pupils tend to be more appealing sexually that contracted ones, perhaps because of an instinctive association with darkness, night-time, bedtime, etc., although the origins of this effect are unproven. Resist the temptation to imagine that everyone you see with dilated pupils is sexually attracted to you.
blinking frequently	eyes	excitement, pressure	Normal human blink rate is considered to be between six and twenty times a minute, depending on the expert. Significantly more than this is a sign of excitement or pressure. Blink rate can increase to up to a hundred times a minute. Blink rate is not a reliable sign of lying.
blinking infrequently	eyes	various	Infrequent blink rate can mean different things and so offers no single clue unless combined with other signals. An infrequent blink rate is probably due to boredom if the eyes are not focused, or can be the opposite - concentration - if accompanied with a strongly focused gaze. Infrequent blink rate can also be accompanied by signals of hostility or negativity, and is therefore not the most revealing of body language signals.
eyebrow raising (eyebrow 'flash')	eyes	greeting, recognition, acknowledgement	Quickly raising and lowering the eyebrows is called an 'eyebrow flash'. It is a common signal of greeting and acknowledgement, and is perhaps genetically influenced since it is prevalent in monkeys (body language study does not sit entirely happily alongside creationism). Fear and surprise are also signalled by the eyebrow flash, in which case the eyebrows normally remain raised for longer, until the initial shock subsides.
winking	eyes	friendly acknowledgement, complicity (e.g., sharing a secret or joke)	Much fuss was made in May 2007 when George W Bush winked at the Queen. The fuss was made because a wink is quite an intimate signal, directed exclusively from one person to another, and is associated with male flirting. It is strange that a non-contact wink can carry more personal implications than a physical handshake, and in many situations more than a kiss on the cheek. A wink is given additional spice if accompanied by a click of the tongue. Not many people can carry it off. Additionally - and this was partly the sense in which Bush used it - a wink can signal a shared joke or secret.

mouth - body language

The mouth is associated with very many body language signals, which is not surprising given its functions - obviously speech, but also those connected with infant feeding, which connects psychologically through later life with feelings of security, love and sex.
The mouth can be touched or obscured by a person's own hands or fingers, and is a tremendously flexible and expressive part of the body too, performing a central role in facial expressions.
The mouth also has more visible moving parts than other sensory organs, so there's a lot more potential for variety of signalling.
Unlike the nose and ears, which are generally only brought into body language action by the hands or fingers, the mouth acts quite independently, another reason for it deserving separate detailed consideration.
Smiling is a big part of facial body language. As a general rule real smiles are symmetrical and produce creases around the eyes and mouth, whereas fake smiles, for whatever reason, tend to be mouth-only gestures.

signal	part of body	possible meaning(s)	detailed explanation
pasted smile	mouth	faked smile	A pasted smile is one which appears quickly, is fixed for longer than a natural smile, and seems not to extend to the eyes. This typically indicates suppressed displeasure or forced agreement of some sort.
tight-lipped smile	mouth	secrecy or withheld feelings	Stretched across face in a straight line, teeth concealed. The smiler has a secret they are not going to share, possibly due to dislike or distrust. Can also be a rejection signal.
twisted smile	mouth	mixed feelings or sarcasm	Shows opposite emotions on each side of the face.
dropped-jaw smile	mouth	faked smile	More of a practised fake smile than an instinctive one. The jaw is dropped lower than in a natural smile, the act of which creates a smile.
smile - head tilted, looking up	mouth	playfulness, teasing, coy	Head tilted sideways and downwards so as to part hide the face, from which the smile is directed via the eyes at the intended target.
bottom lip jutting out	mouth	upset	Like rubbing eyes can be an adult version of crying, so jutting or pushing the bottom lip forward is a part of the crying face and impulse. Bear in mind that people cry for reasons of genuine upset, or to avert attack and seek sympathy or kind treatment.
laughter	mouth	relaxation	Laughter deserves a section in its own right because its such an interesting area. In terms of body language genuine laughter is a sign of relaxation and feeling at ease. Natural laughter can extend to all the upper body or whole body. The physiology of laughter is significant. Endorphins are released. Pain and stress reduces. Also vulnerabilities show and can become more visible because people's guard drops when laughing.
forced laughter	mouth	nervousness, cooperation	Unnatural laughter is often a signal of nervousness or stress, as an effort to dispel tension or change the atmosphere. Artificial laughter is a signal of cooperation and a wish to maintain empathy.
biting lip	mouth	tension	One of many signals suggesting tension or stress, which can be due to high concentration, but more likely to be anxiousness.
teeth grinding	mouth	tension, suppression	Inwardly-directed 'displacement' (see body language glossary) sign, due to suppression of natural reaction due to fear or other suppressant.
chewing gum	mouth	tension, suppression	As above - an inwardly-directed 'displacement' sign, due to suppression of natural reaction. Otherwise however can simply be to freshen breath, or as a smoking replacement.
smoking	mouth	self-comforting	Smoking obviously becomes habitual and addictive, but aside from this people put things into their mouths because it's comforting like thumb-sucking is to a child, in turn rooted in baby experiences of feeding and especially breastfeeding.
thumb-sucking	mouth	self-comforting	A self-comforting impulse in babies and children, substituting breast-feeding, which can persist as a habit into adulthood.
chewing pen or pencil	mouth	self-comforting	Like smoking and infant thumbsucking. The pen is the teat. Remember that next time you chew the end of your pen...
pursing lips	mouth	thoughtfulness, or upset	As if holding the words in the mouth until they are ready to be released. Can also indicate anxiousness or impatience at not being able to speak. Or quite differently can indicate upset, as if suppressing crying.
tongue poke	mouth / tongue	disapproval, rejection	The tongue extends briefly and slightly at the centre of the mouth as if tasting something nasty. The gesture may be extremely subtle. An extreme version may be accompanied by a wrinkling of the nose, and a squint of the eyes.
hand clamped over mouth	mouth / hands	suppression, holding back, shock	Often an unconscious gesture of self-regulation - stopping speech for reasons of shock, embarrassment, or for more tactical reasons. The gesture is reminiscent of the 'speak no evil' wise monkey. The action can be observed very clearly in young children when they witness something 'unspeakably' naughty or shocking. Extreme versions of the same effect would involve both hands.
nail biting	mouth / hands	frustration, suppression	Nail-biting is an inwardly-redirected aggression borne of fear, or some other suppression of behaviour. Later nail-biting becomes reinforced as a comforting habit, again typically prompted by frustration or fear. Stress in this context is an outcome. Stress doesn't cause nail-biting; nail-biting is the outward demonstration of stress. The cause of the stress can be various things (stressors). See the stress article for more detail about stress.

head - body language

The head is very significant in body language.
The head tends to lead and determine general body direction, but it is also vital and vulnerable being where our brain is, so the head is used a lot in directional (likes and dislikes) body language, and in defensive (self-protection) body language too.
A person's head, due to a very flexible neck structure, can turn, jut forward, withdraw, tilt sideways, forwards, backwards. All of these movements have meanings, which given some thought about other signals can be understood.
The head usually has hair, ears, eyes, nose, and a face, which has more complex and visible muscular effects than any other area of the body.
The face, our eyes and our hands, are the most powerful parts of our body in sending body language signals.
The head - when our hands interact with it - is therefore dynamic and busy in communicating all sorts of messages - consciously and unconsciously.

signal	part of body	possible meaning(s)	detailed explanation
head nodding	head	agreement	Head nodding can occur when invited for a response, or voluntarily while listening. Nodding is confusingly and rather daftly also referred to as 'head shaking up and down'. Head nodding when talking face-to-face one-to-one is easy to see, but do you always detect tiny head nods when addressing or observing a group?
slow head nodding	head	attentive listening	This can be a faked signal. As with all body language signals you must look for clusters of signals rather than relying on one alone. Look at the focus of eyes to check the validity of slow head nodding.
fast head nodding	head	hurry up, impatience	Vigorous head nodding signifies that the listener feels the speaker has made their point or taken sufficient time. Fast head nodding is rather like the 'wind-up' hand gesture given off-camera or off-stage by a producer to a performer, indicating 'time's up - get off'.
head held up	head	neutrality, alertness	High head position signifies attentive listening, usually with an open or undecided mind, or lack of bias.
head held high	head	superiority, fearlessness, arrogance	Especially if exhibited with jutting chin.
head tilted to one side	head	non-threatening, submissive, thoughtfulness	A signal of interest, and/or vulnerability, which in turn suggests a level of trust. Head tilting is thought by some to relate to 'sizing up' something, since tilting the head changes the perspective offered by the eyes, and a different view is seen of the other person or subject. Exposing the neck is also a sign of trust.
head forward, upright	head / body	interest, positive reaction	Head forward in the direction of a person or other subject indicates interest. The rule also applies to a forward leaning upper body, commonly sitting, but also standing, where the movement can be a distinct and significant advancement into a closer personal space zone of the other person. Head forward and upright is different to head tilted downward.
head tilted downward	head	criticism, admonishment	Head tilted downwards towards a person is commonly a signal of criticism or reprimand or disapproval, usually from a position of authority.
head shaking	head	disagreement	Sideways shaking of the head generally indicates disagreement, but can also signal feelings of disbelief, frustration or exasperation. Obvious of course, but often ignored or missed where the movement is small, especially in groups seemingly reacting in silent acceptance.
pronounced head shaking	head	strong disagreement	The strength of movement of the head usually relates to strength of feeling, and often to the force by which the head-shaker seeks to send this message to the receiver. This is an immensely powerful signal and is used intentionally by some people to dominate others.
head down (in response to a speaker or proposition)	head	negative, disinterested	Head down is generally a signal of rejection (of someone's ideas etc), unless the head is down for a purpose like reading supporting notes, etc. Head down when responding to criticism is a signal of failure, vulnerability (hence seeking protection), or feeling ashamed.
head down (while performing an activity)	head	defeat, tiredness	Lowering the head is a sign of loss, defeat, shame, etc. Hence the expressions such as 'don't let your head drop', and 'don't let your head go down', especially in sports and competitive activities. Head down also tends to cause shoulders and upper back to to slump, increasing the signs of weakness at that moment.
chin up	head	pride, defiance, confidence	Very similar to the 'head held high' signal. Holding the chin up naturally alters the angle of the head backwards, exposing the neck, which is a signal of strength, resilience, pride, resistance, etc. A pronounced raised chin does other interesting things to the body too - it tends to lift the sternum (breast-bone), which draws in air, puffing out the chest, and it widens the shoulders. These combined effects make the person stand bigger. An exposed neck is also a sign of confidence. 'Chin up' is for these reasons a long-standing expression used to encourage someone to be brave.
active listening	head / face	attention, interest, attraction	When people are listening actively and responsively this shows in their facial expression and their head movements. The head and face are seen to respond fittingly and appropriately to what is being said by the speaker. Nodding is relevant to what is being said. Smiles and other expressions are relevant too. The head may tilt sideways. Mirroring of expressions may occur. Silences are used to absorb meaning. The eyes remain sharply focused on the eyes of the speaker, although at times might lower to look at the mouth, especially in male-female engagements.

arms - body language

Arms act as defensive barriers when across the body, and conversely indicate feelings of openness and security when in open positions, especially combined with open palms.
Arms are quite reliable indicators of mood and feeling, especially when interpreted with other body language.
This provides a good opportunity to illustrate how signals combine to enable safer analysis.
For example:

crossed arms = possibly defensive
crossed arms + crossed legs = probably defensive
crossed arms + crossed legs + frowning + clenched fists = definitely defensive, and probably hostile too.

While this might seem obvious written in simple language, it's not always so clear if your attention is on other matters.
Body language is more than just knowing the theory - it's being aware constantly of the signals people are giving.

signal	part of body	possible meaning(s)	detailed explanation
crossed arms (folded arms)	arms	defensiveness, reluctance	Crossed arms represent a protective or separating barrier. This can be due to various causes, ranging from severe animosity or concern to mild boredom or being too tired to be interested and attentive. Crossed arms is a commonly exhibited signal by subordinates feeling threatened by bosses and figures of authority. N.B. People also cross arms when they are feeling cold, so be careful not to misread this signal.
crossed arms with clenched fists	arms	hostile defensiveness	Clenched fists reinforce stubbornness, aggression or the lack of empathy indicated by crossed arms.
gripping own upper arms	arms	insecurity	Gripping upper arms while folded is effectively self-hugging. Self-hugging is an attempt to reassure unhappy or unsafe feelings.
one arm across body clasping other arm by side (female)	arms	nervousness	Women use this gesture. Men tend not to. It's a 'barrier' protective signal, and also self-hugging.
arms held behind body with hands clasped	arms	confidence, authority	As demonstrated by members of the royal family, armed forces officers, teachers, policemen, etc.
handbag held in front of body (female)	arms	nervousness	Another 'barrier' protective signal.
holding papers across chest (mainly male)	arms	nervousness	Another 'barrier' protective signal, especially when arm is across chest.
adjusting cuff, watchstrap, tie, etc., using an arm across the body	arms	nervousness	Another 'barrier' protective signal.
arms/hands covering genital region (male)	arms / hands	nervousness	Another 'barrier' protective signal.
holding a drink in front of body with both hands	arms / hands	nervousness	Another 'barrier' protective signal.
seated, holding drink on one side with hand from other side	arms / hands	nervousness	One arm rests on the table across the body, holding a drink (or pen, etc). Another 'barrier' protective signal.
touching or scratching shoulder using arm across body	arms / shoulder	nervousness	Another 'barrier' protective signal.

hands - body language

Body language involving hands is extensive.
This is because hands are such expressive parts of the body, and because hands interact with other parts of the body.
Hands contain many more nerve connections (to the brain) than most if not all other body parts. They are extremely expressive and flexible tools, so it is natural for hands to be used a lot in signalling consciously - as with emphasizing gestures - or unconsciously - as in a wide range of unintentional movements which indicate otherwise hidden feelings and thoughts.
A nose or an ear by itself can do little to signal a feeling, but when a hand or finger is also involved then there is probably a signal of some sort.
Hands body language is used for various purposes, notably:

emphasis, (pointing, jabbing, and chopping actions, etc)
illustration (drawing, shaping, mimicking actions or sizing things in the air - this big/long/wide/etc., phoning actions, etc)
specific conscious signals like the American OK, the thumbs-up, the Victory-sign, and for rude gestures, etc.
greeting people and waving goodbye (which might be included in the above category)
and more interestingly in unconscious 'leakage' signals including interaction with items like pens and cigarettes and other parts of the body, indicating feelings such as doubt, deceit, pressure, openness, expectation, etc.

Body language experts generally agree that hands send more signals than any part of the body except for the face. Studying hand body language therefore yields a lot of information; hence the hands section below is large.
There are many cultural body language differences in hand signals. The section below focuses on Western behaviour. Much applies elsewhere, but avoid assuming that it all does.

signal	part of body	possible meaning(s)	detailed explanation
palm(s) up or open	hands	submissive, truthful, honesty, appealing	Said to evolve from when open upward palms showed no weapon was held. A common gesture with various meanings around a main theme of openness. Can also mean "I don't have the answer," or an appeal. In some situations this can indicate confidence (such as to enable openness), or trust/trustworthiness. An easily faked gesture to convey innocence. Outward open forearms or whole arms are more extreme versions of the signal.
palm(s) up, fingers pointing up	hands	defensive, instruction to stop	Relaxed hands are more likely to be defensive as if offered up in protection; rigid fingers indicates a more authoritative instruction or request to stop whatever behaviour is promoting the reaction.
palm(s) down	hands	authority, strength, dominance	Where the lower arm moves across the body with palm down this is generally defiance or firm disagreement.
palm up and moving up and down as if weighing	hands	striving for or seeking an answer	The hand is empty, but figuratively holds a problem or idea as if weighing it. The signal is one of 'weighing' possibilities.
hand(s) on heart (left side of chest)	hands	seeking to be believed	Although easy to fake, the underlying meaning is one of wanting to be believed, whether being truthful or not. Hand on heart can be proactive, as when a salesman tries to convince a buyer, or reactive, as when claiming innocence or shock. Whatever, the sender of this signal typically feels the need to emphasise their position as if mortally threatened, which is rarely the case.
finger pointing (at a person)	hands	aggression, threat, emphasis	Pointing at a person is very confrontational and dictatorial. Commonly adults do this to young people. Adult to adult it is generally unacceptable and tends to indicate a lack of social awareness or self-control aside from arrogance on the part of the finger pointer. The finger is thought to represent a gun, or pointed weapon. Strongly associated with anger, directed at another person. An exception to the generally aggressive meaning of finger pointing is the finger point and wink, below.
finger point and wink	hands/ eyes	acknowledgement or confirmation	The subtle use of a winked eye with a pointed finger changes the finger point into a different signal, that of acknowledging something, often a contribution or remark made by someone, in which case the finger and wink are directed at the person concerned, and can be a signal of positive appreciation, as if to say, "You got it," or "You understand it, well done".
finger pointing (in the air)	hands	emphasis	Pointing in the air is generally used to add emphasis, by a person feeling in authority or power.
finger wagging (side to side)	hands	warning, refusal	Rather like the waving of a pistol as a threat. Stop it/do as you are told, or else..
finger wagging (up and down)	hands	admonishment, emphasis	The action is like pressing a button on a keypad several times. Like when a computer or elevator won't work, as if pressing the button lots of times will make any difference..
hand chop	hands	emphasis - especially the last word on a matter	The hand is used like a guillotine, as if to kill the discussion.
clenched fist(s)	hands	resistance, aggression, determination	One or two clenched fists can indicate different feelings - defensive, offensive, positive or negative, depending on context and other signals. Logically a clenched fist prepares the hand (and mind and body) for battle of one sort or another, but in isolation the signal is impossible to interpret more precisely than a basic feeling of resolve.
finger tips and thumbs touching each other on opposite hands ('steepling')	hands	thoughtfulness, looking for or explaining connections or engagement	Very brainy folk use this gesture since it reflects complex and/or elevated thinking. In this gesture only the fingertips touch - each finger with the corresponding digit of the other hand, pointing upwards like the rafters of a tall church roof. Fingers are spread and may be rigidly straight or relaxed and curved. Alternating the positions (pushing fingers together then relaxing again - like a spider doing press-ups on a mirror) enables the fascinating effect (nothing to do with body language), which after enough repetition can produce a sensation of having a greased sheet of glass between the fingers. Try it - it's very strange. Very brainy people probably don't do this because they have more important things to think about. It's their loss.
steepled fingers pointing forward	hands	thoughtfulness and barrier	The upwards-pointing version tends to indicate high-minded or connective/complex thinking, however when this hand shape is directed forward it also acts as a defensive or distancing barrier between the thinker and other(s) present.
palms down moving up and down, fingers spread	hands	seeking or asking for calm, loss of control of a group or situation	Seen often in rowdy meetings the gesture is typically a few inches above the table top, but is also seen standing up. The action is one of suppressing or holding down a rising pressure. Teachers use this gesture when trying to quieten a class.
cracking knuckles	hands	comforting habit, attention-seeking	Usually male. Machismo or habit. Meaning depends on context. No-one knows still exactly how the noise is made, but the notion that the practice leads to arthritis is now generally thought to be nonsense.
interwoven clenched fingers	hands	frustration, negativity, anxiousness	Usually hands would be on a table or held across stomach or on lap.
index finger and thumb touching at tips	hands	satisfaction, 'OK'	This is generally seen to be the 'OK' signal, similar to the 'thumbs up'. The signal may be to oneself quietly, or more pronounced directed to others. There is also the sense of this suggesting something being 'just right' as if the finger and thumb are making a fine adjustment with a pinch of spice or a tiny turn of a control knob. The circle formed by the joined finger and thumb resembles the O from OK. The remaining three fingers are spread.
thumb(s) up	hands	positive approval, agreement, all well	In the Western world this signal is so commonly used and recognized it has become a language term in its own right: 'thumbs up' means approved. It's a very positive signal. Two hands is a bigger statement of the same meaning.
thumbs down	hands	disapproval, failure	Logically the opposite of thumbs up. Rightly or wrongly the thumbs up and down signals are associated with the gladiatorial contests of the ancient Roman arenas in which the presiding dignitary would signal the fate of the losing contestants.
thumb(s) clenched inside fist(s)	hands	self-comforting, frustration, insecurity	As with other signals involving holding or stroking a part of one's own body this tends to indicate self-comforting. Also thumbs are potent and flexible tools, so disabling them logically reduces a person's readiness for action.
hand held horizontally and rocked from side to side	hands	undecided, in the balance	Signalling that a decision or outcome, normally finely balanced and difficult to predict or control, could go one way or another.
rubbing hands together	hands	anticipation, relish	A signal - often a conscious gesture - of positive expectation, and often related to material or financial reward, or an enjoyable activity and outcome.
hand(s) clamped over mouth	hands / mouth	suppression, shock	See mouth/hand clamp entry in mouth section, which is a subject in its own right.
touching nose, while speaking	hands / nose	lying or exaggeration	This is said to hide the reddening of the nose caused by increased blood flow. Can also indicate mild embellishment or fabrication. The children's story about Pinocchio (the wooden puppet boy whose nose grew when he told lies) reflects long-standing associations between the nose and telling lies.
scratching nose, while speaking	hands / nose	lying or exaggeration	Nose-scratching while speaking is a warning sign, unless the person genuinely has an itchy nose. Often exhibited when recounting an event or incident.
pinching or rubbing nose, while listening	hands / nose	thoughtfulness, suppressing comment	In many cases this is an unconscious signalling of holding back or delaying a response or opinion. Pinching the nose physically obstructs breathing and speech, especially if the mouth is covered at the same time. Rather like the more obvious hand-clamp over the mouth, people displaying this gesture probably have something to say but are choosing not to say it yet.
picking nose	hands / nose	day-dreaming, inattentive, socially disconnected, stress	Nose picking is actually extremely common among adults but does not aid career development or social acceptance and is therefore normally a private affair. When observed, nose-picking can signify various states of mind, none particularly positive.
pinching bridge of nose	hands / nose	negative evaluation	Usually accompanied with a long single blink.
hands clamped on ears	hands / ears	rejection of or resistance to something	Not surprisingly gestures involving hands covering the ears signify a reluctance to listen and/or to agree with what is being said or to the situation as a whole. The gesture is occasionally seen by a person doing the talking, in which case it tends to indicate that other views and opinions are not wanted or will be ignored.
ear tugging	hands / ears	indecision, self-comforting	People fiddle with their own bodies in various ways when seeking comfort, but ear-pulling or tugging given suitable supporting signs can instead indicate indecision and related pondering.
hands clasping head	hands / head	calamity	Hands clasping head is like a protective helmet against some disaster or problem.
hand stroking chin	hands / chin	thoughtfulness	The stroking of a beard is a similar signal, although rare among women.
hand supporting chin or side of face	hands / chin, face	evaluation, tiredness or boredom	Usually the forearm is vertical from the supporting elbow on a table. People who display this signal are commonly assessing or evaluating next actions, options, or reactions to something or someone. If the resting is heavier and more prolonged, and the gaze is unfocused or averted, then tiredness or boredom is a more likely cause. A lighter resting contact is more likely to be evaluation, as is lightly resting the chin on the knuckles.
chin resting on thumb, index finger pointing up against face	hands / chin	evaluation	This is a more reliable signal of evaluation than the above full-hand support. Normally the supporting elbow will be on a table or surface. The middle finger commonly rests horizontally between chin and lower lip.
neck scratching	hands / neck	doubt, disbelief	Perhaps evolved from a feeling of distrust and instinct to protect the vulnerable neck area. Who knows - whatever, the signal is generally due to doubting or distrusting what is being said.
hand clasping wrist	hands / wrist	frustration	Clasping a wrist, which may be behind the back or in open view, can be a signal of frustration, as if holding oneself back.
running hands through hair	hair / hair	flirting, or vexation, exasperation	Take your pick - running hands through the hair is commonly associated with flirting, and sometimes it is, although given different supporting signals, running hands through the hair can indicate exasperation or upset.
hand(s) on hip(s)	hands / arms	confidence, readiness, availability	The person is emphasizing their presence and readiness for action. Observable in various situations, notably sport, and less pronounced poses in social and work situations. In social and flirting context it is said that the hands are drawing attention to the genital area.
hands in pockets	hands / arms	disinterest, boredom	The obvious signal is one of inaction, and not being ready for action. Those who stand with hands in pockets - in situations where there is an expectation for people to be enthusiastic and ready for action - demonstrate apathy and lack of interest for the situation.
removing spectacles	hands / spectacles	alerting wish to speak	For people who wear reading-only spectacles, this is an example of an announcement or alerting gesture, where a person readies themselves to speak and attracts attention to the fact. Other alerting signals include raising the hand, taking a breath, moving upwards and forwards in their seat, etc.
playing an imaginary violin	hands / arms	mock sympathy or sadness	The 'air violin' has been around a lot longer than the 'air guitar', and is based on the traditional use of violin music as a theme or background for sad scenes in movies and in music generally. The 'air violin' is not typically included in body language guides; it's here as an amusing gesture which demonstrates our conscious practice and recognition of certain signals.
thumb and fingers formed into a tube and rocked side to side or up and down (mainly male)	hands	offensive - mockery, dissatisfaction, expression of inferior quality	A conscious signal, usually one-handed. Insulting gesture if directed at a person, typically male to male, since it mimics masturbation, like calling a person a 'tosser' or a 'wanker' (UK) or a jerk-off (US). This is obviously rude and not used in respectable company such as the queen or a group of clergymen. The gesture is also used as a response to something regarded as poor quality, which might be a performance or piece of work or a comment on a product of some sort. The allusion is to masturbation being a poor substitute for sex with a woman, and that those who masturbate are not 'real men'. Unsurprisingly the gesture is mainly male, directed at other males, especially in tribal-like gatherings. Rare female use of this gesture directed at males can be very effective due to its humiliating value. For obvious reasons the gesture is unlikely to be used by females or males directed at females.
two-fingered V-sign, palm inward (mainly male)	hands / fingers	offensive - derision, contempt	A consciously offensive and aggressive gesture, also called 'flicking the Vs', widely but probably incorrectly thought to derive from the 1415 Battle of Agincourt in the Hundred Years War when the tactically pivotal Welsh longbowmen supposedly derided the beaten French soldiers' and their threats to cut off the bowmen's fingers.
two-fingered V-sign, palm outward	hands fingers	victory, peace	British 2nd World War leader Winston Churchill popularised the victory usage, although apparently, significantly if so, first used the palm inwards version until he was told what it meant to the working classes.

handshakes - body language

Firmness of handshake is not the reliable indicator of firmness of character that many believe it to be. Firm handshakes tend to be those of confident people, especially those who have spent some time in business, and who realise that most people in business consider a firm handshake to be a good thing. Handshakes that are uncomfortably firm show a lack of respect or awareness, especially if used in cultures (Eastern especially) where firm handshaking is not normal.
Handshaking evolved from ancient times as an initial gesture of trust, to show that no weapon was being held. Naturally also the handshake offers the most obvious way to connect physically as a way to signal trust or friendship. In more recent times, especially from the 1800s onwards, a handshake became the way to confirm a commercial transaction. Handshaking by women became common practice much later, reflecting the change of social attitudes and the increasing equality of women, for whom a hundred years back such physical contact was considered improper. Women have throughout time generally been subservient to men, hence the very subservient female curtsey gesture (also spelled curtsy), which survives now only in traditional situations such as meeting royalty, or ending a stage performance.

signal	part of body	possible meaning(s)	detailed explanation
handshake - palm down	handshake	dominance	Usually a firm handshake, the 'upper hand' tends to impose and/or create a dominant impression.
handshake - palm up	handshake	submission, accommodating	Usually not a strong handshake, the lower hand has submitted to the upper hand dominance. How all this ultimately translates into the subsequent relationship and outcomes can depend on more significant factors than the handshake.
handshake - both hands	handshake	seeking to convey trustworthiness and honesty, seeking to control	Whether genuine or not, this handshake is unduly physical and (often) uncomfortably domineering.
handshake - equal and vertical	handshake	non-threatening, relaxed	Most handshakes are like this, when neither person seeks to control or to yield.
pumping handshake	handshake	enthusiasm	A vigorous pumping handshake tends to indicate energy and enthusiasm of the shaker towards the other person, the meeting, situation or project, etc). There is a sense of attempting to transfer energy and enthusiasm, literally, from the vigorous handshaker to the shaken person, hence the behaviour is popular in motivational folk and evangelists, etc.
weak handshake	handshake	various	Avoid the common view that a weak handshake is the sign of a weak or submissive person. It is not. Weak handshakes can be due to various aspects of personality, mood, etc. People who use their hands in their profession, for example, musicians, artists, surgeons, etc., can have quite gentle sensitive handshakes. Strong but passive people can have gentle handshakes. Old people can have weak handshakes. A weak handshake might be due to arthritis. Young people unaccustomed to handshaking can have weak handshakes. It's potentially a very misleading signal.
firm handshake	handshake	outward confidence	Avoid the common view that a firm handshake is the sign of a strong solid person. It is not. Firm handshakes are a sign of outward confidence, which could mask deceit or a weak bullying nature, or indicate a strong solid person. Strength of a handshake is not by itself an indicator of positive 'good' mood or personality, and caution is required in reading this signal. It is widely misinterpreted.
handshake with arm clasp	handshake	seeking control, paternalism	When a handshake is accompanied by the left hand clasping the other person's right arm this indicates a wish to control or a feeling of care, which can be due to arrogance. To many this represents an unwanted invasion of personal space, since touching 'permission' is for the handshake only.

legs and feet - body language

Legs and feet body language is more difficult to control consciously or fake than some body language of arms and hands and face. Legs and feet can therefore provide good clues to feelings and moods, if you know the signs.
Men and women sit differently, which needs to be considered when reading leg body language. Partly due to clothing and partly due to sexual differences, men naturally exhibit more open leg positions than women, which should be allowed for when interpreting signals. Certain open-leg male positions are not especially significant in men, but would be notable in women, especially combined with a short skirt.
Older women tend to adopt more modest closed leg positions than younger women, due to upbringing, social trends, equality and clothing. Again take account of these influences when evaluating signals.
Also consider that when people sit for half-an-hour or more they tend to change their leg positions, which can include leg crossing purely for comfort reasons. Again allow for this when interpreting signals.
Leg signals tend to be supported by corresponding arms signals, for example crossed arms and crossed legs, which aside from comfort reasons generally indicate detachment, disinterest, rejection or insecurity, etc.
N.B. Where the terms 'leg crossing' and 'crossed legs' are used alone, this refers to the legs being crossed at both knees. The 'American' or 'Figure-4' leg cross entails the supporting leg being crossed just above the knee by the ankle or lower calf of the crossing leg. This makes a figure-4 shape, hence the name. The posture is also called the American leg cross because of its supposed popularity in the US compared to the UK, notably among males.

signal	part of body	possible meaning(s)	detailed explanation
leg direction, sitting - general	legs/knees	interest, attentiveness (according to direction)	Generally a seated person directs their knee or knees towards the point of interest. The converse is true also - legs tend to point away from something or someone which is uninteresting or threatening. The rule applies with crossed legs also, where the upper knee indicates interest or disinterest according to where it points. The more direct and obvious the position, the keener the attraction or repellent feeling.
uncrossed legs, sitting - general	legs	openness	In sitting positions, open uncrossed leg positions generally indicate an open attitude, contrasting with with crossed legs, which normally indicate a closed attitude or a degree of caution or uncertainty.
parallel legs together, sitting (mainly female)	legs	properness	This unusual in men, especially if the knees point an angle other than straight ahead. The posture was common in women due to upbringing and clothing and indicates a sense of properness.
crossed legs, sitting - general	legs	caution, disinterest	Crossed legs tend to indicate a degree of caution or disinterest, which can be due to various reasons, ranging from feeling threatened, to mildly insecure.
crossing legs, sitting - specific change	legs	interest or disinterest in direction of upper crossed knee	Generally the upper crossed leg and knee will point according to the person's interest. If the knee points towards a person then it signifies interest in or enthusiasm for that person; if it points away from a person it signifies disinterest in or a perceived threat from that person. Signs are more indicative when people first sit down and adopt initial positions in relation to others present. Signs become less reliable when people have been sitting for half-an-hour or so, when leg crossing can change more for comfort than body language reasons.
American or figure-4 leg cross	legs	independent, stubborn	The 'American' or 'figure-4' leg cross is a far more confident posture than the conventional 'both knees' leg cross. It exposes the genital region, and typically causes the upper body to lean back. The crossed leg is nevertheless a protective barrier, and so this posture is regarded as more stubborn than the 'both knees' leg cross.
American or figure-4 leg cross with hand clamp	legs / arm / hand	resistant, stubborn	This is a more protective and stubborn version of the plain American leg cross, in which (usually) the opposite hand to the crossing leg clamps and holds the ankle of the crossing leg, effectively producing a locked position, which reflects the mood of the person.
open legs, sitting (mainly male)	legs	arrogance, combative, sexual posturing	This is a confident dominant posture. Happily extreme male open-crotch posing is rarely exhibited in polite or formal situations since the signal is mainly sexual. This is a clear exception to the leg/knee point rule since the pointing is being done by the crotch, whose target might be a single person or a wider audience. Not a gesture popularly used by women, especially in formal situations and not in a skirt. Regardless of gender this posture is also combative because it requires space and makes the person look bigger. The impression of confidence is increased when arms are also in a wide or open position.
ankle lock, sitting	legs	defensiveness	Knees may be apart (among men predominantly) or together (more natural in women). There is also a suggestion of suppressing negative emotion.
splayed legs, standing	legs	aggression, ready for action	Splayed, that is wide-parted legs create (usually unconsciously) a firm base from which to defend or attack, and also make the body look wider. Hands on hips support the interpretation.
standing 'at attention'	legs / body	respectful	Standing upright, legs straight, together and parallel, body quite upright, shoulders back, arms by sides - this is like the military 'at attention' posture and is often a signal of respect or subservience adopted when addressed by someone in authority.
legs intertwined, sitting (female)	legs	insecurity or sexual posing	Also called 'leg twine', this is a tightly crossed leg, twined or wrapped around the supporting leg. Depending on the circumstances the leg twine can either be a sign of retreat and protection, or a sexual display of leg shapeliness, since a tight leg-cross tends to emphasise muscle and tone. Assessing additional body language is crucial for interpreting such signals of potentially very different meanings.
legs crossed, standing (scissor stance)	legs	insecurity or submission or engagement	Typically observed in groups of standing people at parties or other gatherings, defensive signals such as crossed legs and arms among the less confident group members is often reinforced by a physical and audible lack of involvement and connection with more lively sections of the group. Where legs are crossed and arms are not, this can indicate a submissive or committed agreement to stand and engage, so the standing leg cross relays potentially quite different things.
knee buckle, standing	legs / knees	under pressure	Obviously a pronounced knee buckle is effectively a collapse due to severe stress or actually carrying a heavy weight, and similarly a less obvious knee bend while standing can indicate the anticipation of an uncomfortable burden or responsibility.
feet or foot direction or pointing	feet	foot direction indicates direction of interest	Like knees, feet tend to point towards the focus of interest - or away from something or someone if it is not of interest. Foot direction or pointing in this context is a subtle aspect of posture - this is not using the foot to point at something; it is merely the direction of the feet when sitting or standing in relation to people close by.
foot forward, standing	feet	directed towards dominant group member	The signal is interesting among groups, when it can indicate perceptions of leadership or dominance, i.e., the forward foot points at the leader or strongest member of the group.
shoe-play (female)	feet	relaxation, flirting, sexual	A woman would usually be relaxed to display this signal. In certain situations dangling a shoe from the foot, and more so slipping the foot in and out of the shoe has sexual overtones.

personal space

The technical term for the personal space aspect of body language is proxemics. The word was devised by Edward Twitchell Hall (b.1914), an American anthropologist and writer on body language and non-verbal communications, especially relating to cross-cultural understanding. His 1963 book, Proxemics, A Study of Man's Spacial Relationship, no doubt helped popularize the new word. Here is Edward Twitchell Hall's website - he's an interesting character, and one of the founding fathers of modern body language theory. His other books are listed in the body language references section below. Robert Ardrey is cited by Julius Fast as another significant expert and writer in personal space.
Proxemics - personal space - is defined as (the study of) the amount of space that people find comfortable between themselves and others.
Personal space dimensions depend notably on the individual, cultural and living background, the situation, and relationships, however some general parameters apply to most people, which for Western societies, are shown below.
There are five distinct space zones, which were originally identified by Edward T Hall, and which remain the basis of personal space analysis today. The first zone is sometimes shown as a single zone comprising two sub-zones.

zone	distance	for	detail
1. Close intimate	0-15cm 0-6in	lovers, and physical touching relationships	Sometimes included with the 2nd zone below, this is a markedly different zone in certain situations, for example face-to-face contact with close friends rarely encroaches within 6 inches, but commonly does with a lover.
2. Intimate	15-45cm 6-18in	physical touching relationships	Usually reserved for intimate relationships and close friendships, but also applies during consenting close activities such as contact sports, and crowded places such as parties, bars, concerts, public transport, queues and entertainment and sports spectating events. Non-consenting intrusion into this space is normally felt to be uncomfortable at best, or very threatening and upsetting at worst. Within the intimate zone a person's senses of smell and touch (being touched) become especially exercised.
3. Personal	45-120cm 18in-4ft	family and close friends	Touching is possible in this zone, but intimacy is off-limits. Hence touching other than hand-shaking is potentially uncomfortable.
4. Social- consultative	1.2-3.6m 4-12ft	non-touch interaction, social, business	Significantly hand-shaking is only possible within this zone only if both people reach out to do it. Touching is not possible unless both people reach to do it.
5. Public	3.6m+ 12ft+	no interaction, ignoring	People establish this zonal space when they seek to avoid interaction with others nearby. When this space is intruded by another person is creates a discomfort or an expectation of interaction.

mirroring - matching body language signals

When body language and speech characteristics are mirrored or synchronized between people this tends to assist the process of creating and keeping rapport (a mutual feeling of empathy, understanding, trust).
The term synchronized is arguably a more accurate technical term because mirroring implies visual signals only, when the principles of matching body language extend to audible signals also - notably speech pace, pitch, tone, etc.
'Mirrored' or synchronized body language between two people encourages feelings of trust and rapport because it generates unconscious feelings of affirmation.
When another person displays similar body language to our own, this makes us react unconsciously to feel, "This person is like me and agrees with the way I am. I like this person because we are similar, and he/she likes me too."
The converse effect applies. When two people's body language signals are different - i.e., not synchronized - they feel less like each other, and the engagement is less comfortable. Each person senses a conflict arising from the mismatching of signals - the two people are not affirming each other; instead the mismatched signals translate into unconscious feelings of discord, discomfort or even rejection. The unconscious mind thinks, "This person is not like me; he/she is different to me, I am not being affirmed, therefore I feel defensive."
Advocates and users of NLP (Neuro-Linguistic Programming) use mirroring consciously, as a method of 'getting in tune' with another person, and with a little practice are able to first match and then actually and gently to alter the signals - and supposedly thereby the feelings and attitudes - of other people, using mirroring techniques.
Speech pace or speed is an example. When you are speaking with someone, first match their pace of speaking, then gently change your pace - slower or faster - and see if the other person follows you. Often they will do.
People, mostly being peaceful cooperative souls, commonly quite naturally match each other's body language. To do otherwise can sometimes feel uncomfortable, even though we rarely think consciously about it.
When another person leans forward towards us at a table, we often mirror and do likewise. When they lean back and relax, we do the same.
Sales people and other professional communicators are widely taught to mirror all sorts of more subtle signals, as a means of creating trust and rapport with the other person, and to influence attitudes.
Mirroring in this conscious sense is not simply copying or mimicking. Mirroring is effective when movements and gestures are reflected in a similar way so that the effect remains unconscious and subtle. Obvious copying would be regarded as strange or insulting.
See NLP (Neuro-Linguistic Programming), and Empathy.

body language of seating positioning in relation to others

Lots of unnecessary friction is created in work and communications situations due to ignorance and lack of thought about seating positions.
The 'science' of where people sit in relation to each other, and on what and around what, is fascinating and offers opportunities for improving relationships, communications, cooperation and understanding.
Here are some guidelines.
These points are generally for the purpose of a leader or someone aspiring to lead, or coach, counsel, etc. They also relate to one-to-one situations like appraisals, interviews, etc.
Sitting opposite someone creates a feeling of confrontation. For one-to-one meetings, especially with emotional potential (appraisals for example) take care to arrange seating before the meeting to avoid opposite-facing positions. If you cannot arrange the seating give very deliberate thought to seating positions before you sit down and/or before you invite the other person to sit - don't just let it happen because commonly, strangely, people often end up sitting opposite if free to do so.
Consider the rules about personal space. Do not place chairs so close together that personal space will be invaded. Conversely sitting too far apart will prevent building feelings of trust and private/personal discussion.
Sitting opposite someone across a table or desk adds a barrier to the confrontational set-up and can create a tension even when the relationship is good and strong. It's easy to forget this and to find yourself sitting opposite someone when there are only two of you at the table. Sitting opposite across a table is okay for lovers gazing into each other's eyes, but not good for work, counselling, coaching, etc.
Sitting behind a work-desk (the boss behind his/her own desk especially) and having someone (especially a subordinate) sit in a less expensive lower chair across the desk emphasises authority of the boss and adds unhelpfully to the barrier and the confrontational set-up. This seating arrangement will increase the defensiveness of anyone already feeling insecure or inferior. This positioning is favoured by certain bosses seeking to reinforce their power, but it is not helpful in most modern work situations, and is not a good way to increase respectful natural authority anyway. Incidentally the expression 'on the carpet' - meaning being told off or 'bollocked' - derives from the extreme form of this positional strategy, when the victim, called into the office would stand to receive their bollocking on the carpet in front of the boss who sat high and mighty behind his desk. (The boss would typically be male, and beaten/abused/neglected as a child, but that's another story.)
Sitting at a diagonal angle of about 45 degrees to another person is a comfortable and cooperative arrangement. This is achieved naturally by both sitting around the same corner of a square table, which also enables papers to be seen together without too much twisting.
The same angle is appropriate for and easy-chairs around a coffee-table. A table ceases to become a barrier when people are sitting at a diagonal angle, instead it becomes a common work surface for studying papers, or exploring issues together.
Sitting side by side on a settee is not a good arrangement for working relationships. It threatens personal space, and obstructs communications.
Low settees and easy-chairs and low coffee tables cause people to sink and relax back are usually unhelpful for work meetings. For this reason much seating in hotel lounges is entirely unsuitable for work meetings. People naturally are more alert and focused using higher formal table and chairs.
Interviews and appraisals can benefit from relaxed or more formal seating depending on the situation. Importantly - make a conscious choice about furniture depending on the tone of the meeting, and how relaxed you want the meeting to be.
The 45-degree rule is approximate, and anyway under most circumstances seating angles are influenced by furniture and available space. Importantly, simply try to avoid opposite or side-by-side positions. An angle between these two extremes is best - somewhere in the range of 30-60 degrees if you want to be technical about it.
Round tables are better than square or oblong tables for group and team meetings. Obviously this works well because no-one is at the head of the table, which promotes a feeling of equality and teamwork. King Arthur - or the creator of the legend (King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table) - opted for a round table for this reason. The term 'round table' has come to symbolise teamwork and fairness, etc., for a long time. Unfortunately round tables aren't common in offices, which means thinking carefully about best seating arrangements for square or oblong tables.
A confident leader will be happy to avoid taking the 'head of the table' position, instead to sit among the team, especially if there are particular reasons for creating a cooperative atmosphere.
Conversely it is perfectly normal for a leader to take the 'head of the table' if firmness is required in chairing or mediating, etc. It is usually easier to chair a meeting from the head of the table position.
Theory suggests that when a group sits around a table the person sitting on the leader's right will generally be the most loyal and aligned to the leader's thinking and wishes. A (likely) mythical origin is said to be that in Roman times a leader would place their most loyal supporter to their right because this was the most advantageous position from which to attempt an assassination by stabbing (given that most people then as now were right-handed). Assassination by stabbing is rare in modern work meetings, so positioning an opponent on your right side (instead of allowing the normal opposite positioning to happen) can be a useful tactic since this indicates confidence and strength.
In large gatherings of 20-30 people or more, a 'top table' is often appropriate for the leader and guest speakers. While this seems like a throwback to more autocratic times, it is perfectly workable. Groups of people above a certain size are far more likely to expect firm direction/leadership, if not in making decisions, certainly to keep order and ensure smooth running of proceedings. Therefore seating arrangements for large groups should provide a clear position of control for the chairperson or event leaders.

body language in different cultures

Here are some brief pointers concerning body language variations and gestures in cultures which differ from Western (US/UK notably) behaviour.
I welcome refinements and additions to this section. Please send any you can contribute.
People in/from parts of India may to shake their head from side to side as a sign of agreement and active listening. In the UK/west we tend to nod our head to agree and affirm and to show we are listening; in India it is not unusual for people to move their heads from side to side in giving these reactions. It is also seen as respectful practice. (Thanks S Churchill. Incidentally on this point, sideways head-shaking of this sort is not a vigorous twisting movement; it is usually more of a sideways tilting of the head from one side to the other.)
This point (thanks R Fox) concerns eye contact. Eye contact (other than unwanted staring) is generally regarded as a positive aspect of body language in Western cultures, which in this context typically refers to white European people and descendents. A specific difference regarding eye contact can be found in some black Caribbean cultures however, whereby young people tend to be instructed not look at someone eye to eye when being told off or disciplined. When cultures meet obviously this provides potential for friction, given the 'Western' expectation in such situations, for example, "Look at me when I'm talking to you".
Filipino people (and in fact many other people of all races) can find it offensive/uncomfortable when beckoned by a repeatedly curled index finger - the gesture evokes feelings of having done something wrong and being chastised for it.
In some Australian Aboriginal cultures, it is disrespectful to look an elder, or person of a rank above you, in the eyes. It is a sign of respect to drop your eyes, (whereas in Western culture not meeting somebody's gaze is commonly considered to be a negative sign, indicating deceit, lying, lack of attention, lack of confidence, etc).
In Arab countries the thumbs-up gesture is rude. Showing the soles of the feet is insulting/rude in many Asian and Arab cultures, especially pointing the foot or feet at anyone. Feet are considered 'inferior' parts of the body compared with the dignity of the face. In Arab culture the left hand and right hands have religious connotations which generally dictate that the left hand is not used for touching (for example shaking hands) or eating. Arab handshaking tends to be more frequent and less firm - on meeting and departing, even several times in the same day.
The eyebrow flash may be considered rude or to carry sexual connotations in Japanese culture. Informal male-female touching is less common and can be considered improper in Japan.
The American-style 'OK' sign - a circle made with thumb and index-finger with other fingers fanned or outstretched - is a rude gesture in some cultures, notably Latin America, Germany and the Middle East.
Beckoning gestures in Eastern cultures are commonly made with the palm down, whereas Western beckoning is generally palm up.
The offensive British/Western two-fingered V-sign is not necessarily offensive in Japan and may be considered positive like the Western palm-outwards 'victory' or 'peace' V-sign in the West.
In some countries, Greece, Turkey and Bulgaria for example, moving the head up/down or from side to side may have additional or different meanings to those conventionally interpreted in the UK/US. Specifically, in Turkey, aside from using conventional (US/UK-style) head nodding and shaking, some people may also signal 'no' by moving their head up. (This is a refinement of previous details about head movements in body language, and I welcome more information especially from people overseas as to precise variations to US/UK conventional meanings in signally yes and no, and anything else, with head movements.)
In Japan the male bow is still commonly used, when the depth of the bow increases with the amount of respect shown, and is therefore a signal of relative status between two people.
In The Netherlands people touch the temple with the index finger in order to indicate someone (or an action) is smart or intelligent. Touching the forehead with the index finger means someone (or an action) is stupid or crazy. In Russia these meanings are reversed.

Here are some Japanese body language insights, especially for doing business in Japan (thanks R Wilkes):

High-pitched laughter means nervousness.
On introduction, do not offer a handshake. Depth of bow is impossible to judge without immense experience: it is sufficient for a Westerner to bow shallowly.
Business cards should be exchanged at the first possible opportunity. The card received should be held in both hands and examined carefully, and then stored, preferably in a wallet, on the upper half of the body. Holding a person's identity in one hand is casual/disrespectful. The trouser pocket is a rude place.
Blowing one's nose into a handkerchief in public is obscene. (What other bodily waste do you wrap up in cotton and put in your pocket?..)
Japanese businesses (unless they cannot afford it) have two types of meeting room: a Western style room with central table, and a room with sofas. The sofa room is for non-antagonistic meetings. In general, the 45 degree rule seems to apply here - better to sit on adjacent sides than across from one another. This room can be a great place to cut deals. Nevertheless, the 'table' room is where transactions are formalised. There the host of the meeting sits nearest to (and preferably with his back to) the door. (This is probably chivalric in origin - he is first in the way of any invader to the room.) His team sits on the same side of the table in descending rank. The chief guest sits opposite him and similarly the minions decline to the side. The head of the table is not generally used in bilateral (two parties) meetings except by people brought in to advise on components of the agenda. A great boss may spend much of the meeting with his eyes closed. He is considering what is being said by the subordinates and does not need visual distraction. However, if he has a firm steer to give, he will instruct his deputy and this will be relayed immediately.
Loss of eye contact is quite normal with lower ranking people: if they drop their head, this indicates deep thought.
Otherwise, pure body signals are quite similar to Western ones, with one notable exception: touching the tip of the nose from straight ahead signals 'I/me'.
The Japanese language does have a word for 'no' but it is rarely used in business for fear of causing offence or loss of face. "Yes, but..." is substantially more acceptable.

I welcome refinements and additions for body language in other cultures. Please send any you can contribute.
(Thanks to D Ofek, G van Duin, L Campbell, F Suzara, M Baniasadi, S Aydogmus, DD, and particularly to R Wilkes for the Japanese section.)

flirting, courtship, dating and mating - sexual body language

Many signals in flirting, dating and mating body language are covered in the general translation signals above, and the fundamental principles of social/work body language also apply to the development or blocking of sexual relationships.
Of course lots of flirting, and more, goes on at work, but for the purposes of this article it's easier to keep the two situations separate.
There are some differences which can completely change the nature of a signal given in a sexual context. Sitting opposite someone is an example, which is confrontational at work, but is often intimate and enabling for sexual and romantic relationships: full constant eye-to-eye contact is helpful for intimacy, as is full frontal facing between male and female for obvious reasons.
Personal space must also be considered in a different way in social-sexual situations compared to work and non-sexual situations: At work, the primary consideration is given to respecting the personal zones and not invading closer than the situation warrants. In a sexual flirting context however, personal space becomes the arena for ritual and play, and within reason is more of a game than a set of fixed limits.
Dancing is further example of how body language operates at a different level in sexual-social situations. Different tolerances and tacit (implied) permissions apply. It's a ritual and a game which humans have played for thousands of years.
Dancing relates strongly to the attention stage of the dating/mating/courtship process. In many ways courtship echoes the selling and advertising model AIDA (Attention, Interest, Desire, Action). This is also known as the Hierarchy of Effects, since steps must be successfully completed in order to achieve the sale at the end. For example, nothing happens without first attracting attention, a point commonly ignored by people looking for a mate. The attention stage is even more critical in crowded and highly competitive environments such as nightclubs and dating websites.
And while not technically part of body language, environment is a vital aspect of dating and mating. The environment in which the dating activity is pursued equates to market/audience-targeting in business. People seeking a mate are effectively marketing themselves. Commonly people head to where everyone else goes - to nightclubs and dating websites - but crucially these environments are highly unsuitable markets for many people, for instance those not good at dancing, and those not good at writing and communicating online. Just as a business needs to find the best markets and ways of reaching its target audience, so in dating people can seek environments where they can best display their strengths and where relevant 'buyers' will be.
Knowing about flirting body language becomes more useful in a favourable environment.

female indications of interest in a male

Females have very many more ways of attracting attention to themselves than males, and so are able to express interest and availability in far more ways than males tend to do.
Female interest in males is relatively selective. Male interest in females is by comparison constant and indiscriminate.
This is due fundamentally to human mating behaviour, evolved over many thousands of years, in which essentially women control the chase and the choice, and men respond primarily to female availability and permissions. These differences in behaviour perhaps mainly exist because females produce one viable egg per month, about 500 in a lifetime, whereas males make several hundred sperm every day. Do the math, as they say.
As with interpreting body language generally, beware of concluding anything based on a single signal. Clusters of signals are more reliable. Foot pointing, knee pointing, and leg-crossing signals can all be due simply to comfort, rather than expressions of interest or sexual appeal.
Aside from the specific flirting and sexual attraction signs below, females also express interest using the general signalling explained in the earlier sections, e.g., prolonged direct eye contact, active responsive listening, attentive open alert postures and body positions, etc.
Here are the most common female flirting body language signals and meanings, according to experts on the subject:
eye contact - anything more than a glance indicates initial interest.
eye catch and look away - establishing eye contact then looking away or down is said by many experts to be the standard initial signal of interest designed to hook male reaction. The reliability of the signal meaning is strengthened when repeated and/or reinforced with longer eye-contact.
eye-widening - interest, simultaneously increasing attractiveness/appeal.
eyelash flicker - subtle movement of eyelashes to widen eyes briefly.
pupil dilating - interest, liking what is seen, arousal.
looking sideways up - lowering head, slightly sideways, and looking up - also known as doe-eyes, with eyelashes normally slightly lowered - displays interest and vulnerability/coyness, most famously employed by Diana Princess of Wales, notably in her interview with Martin Bashir in battle for public sympathy following her split with Prince Charles.
shoulder glance - looking sideways towards the target over the shoulder signals availability, and hence interest.
smiling - obvious sign of welcoming and friendliness.
moistening lips - lips are significant in signalling because (psychologists say) they mimic the female labia, hence the potency of red lipstick (suggesting increased blood flow) and moistening/licking the lips.
parted lips - significant and potent attraction signal.
preening - especially of hair, which exposes the soft underarm.
flicking hair - often combined with a slight tossing movement of the head.
canting (tilting) head - also exposes neck.
showing inner wrist or forearm - a soft vulnerable area and erogenous zone.
straightening posture - standing taller, chest out, stomach in - a natural response to feeling the urge to appear more appealing.
self-touching - drawing attention to sexually appealing parts of the body; neck, hair, cleavage, thigh, etc. - additionally self-touching is said to represent transference/imagining of being touched - and of course demonstration of what it would be like for the target to do the touching; teasing in other words.
self thigh-stroking - usually while sitting down - same as self-touching.
standing opposite - normally a confrontational positioning, but in flirting allows direct eye contact and optimizes engagement. Refer also to personal space rules: less than 4ft between people is personal; less than 18 inches is intimate and only sustainable when there is some mutual interest and attraction, especially when direct facing and not in a crowded environment. N.B. Crowded environments distort the personal space rules, where implied permissions (e.g., for public transport and dense crowds or queues) override normal interpretations.
leaning forward - sitting or standing; leaning forwards towards a person indicates interest and attraction.
foot pointing - direction can indicate person of interest.
knee-pointing - as foot pointing.
leg twine - a tight-leg cross 'aimed' (combined with eye contact) at a target, or when sitting one-to-one, increases sexual allure since it emphasises leg shape and tone. When employed flirtatiously, female leg crossing and uncrossing also has obvious sexual connotations and stimulates basic urges in males.
shoe-dangling - positive signal of relaxation or of greater promise, especially if the foot thrusts in and out of the shoe.
pouting - pouting involves tightening the lips together; the tongue rises to the roof of the mouth as if ready to swallow. Pouting displays various emotions, not always a sexual one, for example projection of the lower lip indicates upset. An attraction pout looks more like the initial forming of a kiss.
picking fluff - removing fluff, hair, etc., from the target's clothes is playing in the intimate personal space zone, in which the fluff picking is merely a pretext or excuse.
fondling cylindrical objects - phallic transference, for instance using pens, a dangling earring, a wine glass stem, etc.
mirroring - mirroring or synchronizing gestures and positions is a signal of interest and attraction. See mirroring.
When considering body language in such detail, remember that males and females rely greatly on conversation and verbal communication to determine mutual attraction as soon as the situation allows. Body language in flirting can be significant in indicating a strong match, but just as easily can merely be an initial filtering stage which progresses no further because other (infinitely variable) personal or situational criteria on either or both sides are not met.
Also bear in mind that a lot of flirting happens for fun with no intention of proceeding to sexual or romantic attachment.
The purpose of this page is chiefly to explain body language signals, not to explain human relationships.

male interest in females

As stated earlier there are reasons for the relative sparseness of male signals compared to female flirting signals.
Most men are interested perpetually in most women, and therefore male signals are generally designed to attract the attention of any females, rather than directed at one female in particular.
Male interest is basically always switched on and ready to respond to opportunity when female availability and interest are signalled and noticed.
Men believe they take the lead, but actually mostly women do.
Male signals of interest in females essentially follow normal body language rules, for example widening eyes, dilated pupils, forward leaning, prolonged direct eye contact, active listening reactions, and these come into play once eye contact and/or proximity is established.
The most prevalent signals males use to announce their availability and attract female attention are summarised below. Under many circumstances these might be categorised under the headings 'pathetic' or 'amusing'. The male of the species, despite a couple of million years of evolution, has yet to develop much subtle body language in this area.
posturing - erect stance, chest out, shoulders back, stomach in.
wide stance - legs apart (standing or sitting) - to increase size.
cowboy stance - thumbs in belt loops, fingers pointing to genital area.
hands in pockets - thumbs out and pointing to genitals.
'chest-thumping' - a metaphor describing various male antics designed to draw attention to themselves, often involving play-punching or wresting other males, laughing too loudly, head-tossing, acting the fool, etc.
room scanning - males who are available and looking for females tend to scan the room, partly to look for available females, but also to indicate they are available themselves.
dress - clothing: style, fit, cleanliness, etc - is all an extension of personality and is therefore part of body language.
preening and grooming - adjusting clothes, ties, cuffs, sleeves, tugging at trouser crotch, running hands through or over hair, etc.
smell - certain smells are attractive to females but it's a complex and highly personal area yet to be understood well. Answers on a postcard please.
tattoos - here's an interesting one, commonly ignored in conventional body language flirting guides. Tattoos have dramatically altered in society's perceptions in the past generation. Previously considered indicative of lower class, lower intellect, sailors, soldiers, builders, etc., nowadays they are everywhere on everyone. Tattoos have been a significant part of human customs for thousands of years. They are decorative, and also (in evolutionary terms) suggested strength and machismo, since the process of obtaining them was painful and even life-threatening. Certain females are attracted by tattoos on men, especially extensive markings. It's a drastic step to improve one's love life, but worthy of note, because the subject is not as simple and negative as traditionally regarded. Tattoos are significant attention-grabbers, and given the variety of subjects featured, also provide interesting talking points.
body piercings - again more complex than traditionally considered, piercings do attract attention and signify the wearer to be different.
dancing - dancing, in a suitable place of course, has for thousands of years been an opportunity for males and females to display their physical and sexual potential. With the exception perhaps of pogo-ing and head-banging most dance styles replicate sexual movements - lots of rhythmic hip and leg work, contorted facial expressions, sweating and occasional grunting, etc. For those blessed with a level of coordination dancing offers an effective way of attracting attention, especially in crowded competitive situations. For the less rhythmic, the lesson is to find a different environment.

stages of courtship

The initial stages of a (usually) male-female sexual relationship are commonly represented as quite a structured process, summarised below.
Incidentally courtship traditionally refers to the early stages of a male-female relationship leading up to sex, babies, marriage and family life, (followed for many by mutual tolerance/indifference/loathing and acrimonious break-up). Flirting is a common modern term for the early stages of courtship, or the beginnings of extra-marital affairs, which is misleading since most flirting happens for fun and rarely progresses beyond non-sexual touching.
If considering flirting/courtship body language in the context of dating and mating, it's useful to recall the selling and advertising model AIDA (Attention, Interest, Desire, Action), and especially that nothing happens without first attracting attention.
Significantly, women are said generally make the first move - by signalling interest through establishing eye contact, and then confusingly for men, looking away.
The process can disintegrate at any moment, often before it begins, because most men are too interested in themselves or the bloody football on the pub telly to notice the eye contact.
Where the process reaches past the first stage, here broadly is how it is said by body language experts to unfold:

Eye contact (females typically lower or avert their eyes once firm contact is made).
Returned eye contact (by male).
Mutual smiling.
Preening, grooming, posturing (male and female).
Moving together as regards personal space (male typically walks to female).
Talking.
Attentive active listening (or simulation of this, sufficient mutually to retain sense of mutual interest).
Synchronizing/mirroring each other's body language.
Touching (more significantly by the female; subtle touching can happen earlier, and at this stage can become more intimate and daring).

A generation ago this process took a little longer than it does today. Alcohol accelerates things even more.
You'll see variations of the above sequence in body language books, and no doubt in real life too.
Males tend to react to obvious signs of availability shown by females but miss many subtle signals.
Females give lots of subtle signals, tend not to repeat them too often, and infer lack of interest in a male failing to respond.
It's a wonder that anyone gets together at all.
The fact that most people do confirms that courtship is more complex than we readily understand.

bowing and curtseying body language

Although now rare in Western society bowing and curtseying are interesting because they illustrate the status and relationship aspects of body language, which are so significant in one-to-one situations.
Bowing - Bowing is mainly a male gesture. Bending the upper body downwards towards another person or group is a signal of appreciation or subservience. The bow was in olden times a standard way for men to greet or acknowledge another person of perceived or officially higher status. The bow is also a gesture of appreciation and thanks which survives in entertainment and performance. Male bowing traditionally varied from a modest nod of the head, to a very much more pronounced bend of the body from the hips. Depth of bend reflects depth of respect or appreciation. For added dramatic effect the feet may be moved tightly together. A very traditional Western bow involves a deeper bend combined with the (normally) right-leg pushing backwards or 'scraping' on the ground, hence the expression 'bowing and scraping'. The effect can be augmented by the bower's hand pressing horizontally on the stomach, and the other arm extended, or sweeping extravagantly in a circular motion, made all the more dramatic if combined with removing a hat. Such behaviour is rare outside of Christmas pantomimes these days, however interestingly even in modern times you will see men slightly nodding their heads in an involuntary 'semi-bow' when meeting a person and wishing to show respect or admiration. As such, the small nod or bow of a head can be a clue to perceived seniority in relationships. Bowing has long been more significant and complex in Eastern cultures, where the gesture carries a similar deferential meaning, albeit it within more formal protocols and traditions. The fundamental body language of bowing is rooted in showing subservience by lowering one's gaze and body, literally putting the bower at a lower level than the other person. Bowing remains significant in Japanese culture.
Curtsey/curtsy - The curtsey is the female equivalent of the male bow, and in their most extreme versions curtseying and bowing gestures are quite similar. A curtsey is a bend of the knees, combined with a slight bow of the head, and sometimes a lifting of the skirt or dress at each side, at knee-height, by both hands. This skirt-lift dates from olden times when this prevented a long skirt from touching wet or muddy ground. The female curtsey gesture survives in traditional situations such as meeting royalty, or ending a stage or dance performance, in which you might see an older more flamboyant and deeper curtsey entailing one knee bending sideways and the other leg bending behind. Curtseying has effectively now been replaced by handshaking, although as with male bowing it is possible sometimes to see small head bows by women when meeting and shaking hands with someone regarded as superior or important.
Bowing and curtseying as conscious intentional gestures have effectively disappeared from Western behaviour, but importantly people's body language continues to give much smaller unconscious signals which can be linked to these old formal gestures and their meanings.

body language glossary

This is not an exhaustive collection of body language terminology - just a summary of the main and most interesting definitions.
absorbed actions - actions stimulated through unconscious mirroring.
active listening - listening very attentively and empathizing and reflecting back understanding through body language and usually words too.
adaptors - small signals given when anxious or when behaving in a way that does not comfortably match the feelings, for example lip-biting or face-touching, which are self-comforting signals.
alerting/announcement gestures - indicating need to speak, for example raising a hand, or taking a breath and lifting the shoulders.
american leg cross - the 'American' or 'Figure-4' leg cross entails the supporting leg being crossed just above the knee by the ankle or lower calf of the crossing leg. This makes a figure-4 shape, hence the name. The posture is called the American leg cross because of its supposed popularity in the US compared to the UK, notably among males.
anthropology - the study of humankind in all respects - especially culturally, socially and in evolutionary terms, and how these key aspects inter-relate. The word anthropology is from Greek anthropos meaning human being. Anthropology, like psychology and ethnology and ethology, is a science which over-arches the study of body language, and provides useful (and for serious students, essential) context for understanding the reasons and purposes of body language. Anthropology has been studied one way or another for thousands of years and became established under that name in the 1500s. The Human Genome project, which basically mapped the human genetic code (started 1990, completed in 2003, and ongoing) is probably the largest anthropological study ever performed.
asymmetric/asymmetry - describing gestures or facial expressions, especially a smile, that are not symmetrical (equal on both sides), which tends to indicate incongruence or a mixed signal and not what it might initially seem to mean.
auto-contact - describing self-touching gestures and actions.
autonomic/automatic signals - effectively involuntary stress-induced physiological behaviours, such as crying, shaking, blushing, quickened pulse-rate, and in extreme cases retching, vomiting, fainting, etc. Involuntary in the sense that it is virtually impossible to control these signals because they are controlled by the very basic part of the brain responsible for our most basic bodily functions. Breathing rate is perhaps the exception, which while in many cases will speed as a physiological response to stress, can often be controlled and slowed or deepened given suitable conscious effort.
back-channel signals - positive body language reactions to a speaker.
baton signals - gestures which reinforce the rhythm of speech.
barrier - describing signals in which the hands or arms or a table, or adjusting clothing, etc., form a defence or obstruction between two people, such a folded arms.
buttress stance - weight bearing leg is straight, while the front leg is forward, usually with the foot pointing outwards from the body. Regarded as a signal of reluctance or readiness to depart.
cluster - term for a group of body language signals, which more reliably indicate meaning or mood than a single signal.
cognitive dissonance - conflicting understanding or feelings - cognition is understanding things through thought; dissonance is disharmony or conflict. This is a widely used term in psychology and the effect arises very commonly in relationships and communications. Conflicting body language signals can sometimes indicate this attitude or reaction in a person.
compliance - submissive behaviour, hence compliance signals or signs, which indicate this.
courtship - an old term for (typically) male-female relations from initial meeting through to going-out relationship stage. Courtship in olden times (broadly since the middle ages up until the mid-late 1900s) referred to quite formal steps of increasing familiarity between male and female, through to intimacy, perhaps with a little touching of hands or kissing, and lots of going out for walks and visits to the cinema or theatre, etc. Sex might not rear its scary head for weeks, months or years; and sometimes, especially if the female was from an elite or religiously obsessed family, not until the wedding night. Nowadays 'courtship' is a much speedier affair and among modern young people can be started, fully consummated and effectively forgotten in a matter of minutes.
denial - signals of denial effectively undo or contradict more conscious typically false or manufactured body language, thereby betraying true feeling or motive.
displacement - a stress signal typically prompted by suppression of natural reaction due to fear or other inhibition, for example biting fingernails, picking at finger(s) or thumb.
distraction - signalling prompted by stress, usually quite inappropriate to the needs of the situation, for example stretching and relaxing, or pausing to take a drink when an emergency arises.
emotional intelligence - also known as EQ, Emotional Intelligence is based on 'feeling intelligence' (rather than IQ - Intelligence Quotient - based on logical intelligence), and the capability to understand and communicate with others very empathically, which requires awareness of emotional behaviour and ability to deal with people sensitively. See Emotional Intelligence.
emphatic/emphasizing gestures - gestures which reinforce the meaning of spoken words, e.g., jabbing fingers, weighing hands.
erogenous zone - any part of the human body particularly sensitive to touching and sexual arousal - the word erogenous first appeared in the late 1800s which suggests when the effect was first analysed and recorded in any serious sense. The word erogenous derives from Eros, the Greek god of love (Cupid is Roman), from which the word erotic also derives. Erogenous zones contain high concentration of nerve endings and are significant in flirting and sex. Aside from the obvious genital areas and bottoms and breasts, erogenous zones include necks, inner side of arms and wrists, armpits and lips. Incidentally the G in G-spot is named after Ernst Grafenberg (1881-1957) a German-born gynaecological doctor and scientist who as well as being an expert on the female orgasm, was first to invent and commercially market a IUD (intrauterine device or coil) for female birth control.
ethnology - the study of different ethnic people and their differences and relationships. Ethnology is a branch of anthropology, concerned with ethnic effects, and where this involves behaviour it certainly relates to body language. The word ethnology is derived from Greek ethnos meaning nation. The establishment of the science and word ethnology is credited to Slovakian/Austrian Adam Franz Kollar (1718-1783), a nobleman, professor and librarian who became a Court Councilor for the Habsburg Monarchy of the Kingdom of Hungary, as it once was. The modern study and awareness of ethnology is arguably hampered by sensitivities around racism. Ethnic differences between people obviously exist, and ironically where over-sensitivity to racism and equality obstructs debate, society's understanding of these issues remains clouded and confused.
ethology - ethology is primarily the science of animal behaviour, but increasingly extends to human behaviour and social organization. The word ethology first appeared in English in the late 1800s, derived from the Greek word ethos meaning character or disposition. Ethology became properly established during the early 1900s. Austrian zoologist and 1973 Nobel Prizewinner Konrad Lorenz (1903-89) was a founding figure. Desmond Morris, author of The Naked Ape, is an ethologist. So is the evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins. Where ethology considers animal evolution and communications, it relates strongly to human body language. Charles Darwin's work pioneered much ethological thinking.
eye flash - a sudden direct glance to attract attention or warn, usually followed by some other more specific signal.
eyebrow flash - quickly raising and lowering both eyebrows - typically in greetings, recognition, acknowledgement, or surprise. An eyebrow flash can therefore also be a signal of positive interest.
eye shrug - upwards eye-roll signalling frustration.
face frame - framing the face with the hands to hold or attract listeners' attention.
haptics - the study of human touch, from the Greek word haptikos, meaning able to touch. The word haptics in this sense entered the English language in the 1800s, which indicates when human touch began to be a serious area of study.
hybrid expression - a term apparently originated by Charles Darwin, it refers to a facial expression which combines two seemingly different or opposing meanings, for example a smile with a head-turn away from the person the smile is meant for. Hybrid expressions provide further emphasis of the need to avoid reading single signals. Combinations of signals and context are necessary, especially to make sense of hybrid expressions which contain different meanings.
illustrative gesture - gestures which shape or describe the physical dimensions of something by using the hands in the air.
index finger - first finger of the hand - usually the most dominant and dexterous finger, hence used mostly in pointing gestures.
kine - an obscure term describing a single body language signal (devised by body language expert Dr Ray Birdwhistell, c.1952, from the longer term kinesics).
kinesics - the scientific term for the sudy of body language, and more loosely meaning body language itself. Kinesics is pronounced 'kineesicks' with stress on the 'ee'). The word kinesics was first used in English in this sense in the 1950s, from the Greek word kinesis, meaning motion.
labial tractors - a wonderful term for the muscles around the mouth. The word labial in phonetics means closure or part closure of the mouth, and additionally refers to the resulting vowel sounds produced, like w, oo, etc.
leakage - leakage signals are the small signs which are most difficult to control or mask, and which therefore offer clues even when someone is generally in good control of their outgoing body language signals.
mask/masking - using body language, usually intentionally, to deceive others as to true feelings or motives.
metronome/metronomic signals - these are any rhythmic tappings or movements which indicate a readiness or self-prompting to speak or take action- a termed devised by body language expert Judi James.
micro-gestures - tiny body language 'leakage' signals, often unconsciously sent and interpreted, more likely to be seen and reacted to unconsciously rather than consciously, unless concentrating determinedly.
mime/miming gestures - gestures used consciously to convey a specific message, such as extending the thumb and little finger by the ear to say "Phone me," or wiping imaginary sweat from the brow to express relief after a crisis subsides.
mirroring - the synchronizing or matching of body language (and speech characteristics), usually between two people, which helps build feelings of trust and empathy. Mirroring works like this because similar signals produce unconscious feelings of affirmation. When a person's signals are mirrored the unconscious mind thinks, "This person is like me and agrees with the way I am. I like this person because we are similar, and he/she likes me too." See NLP (Neuro-Linguistic Programming), and Empathy. Pacing refers to the mirroring of someone's speed of movements.
NLP/Neuro-linguistic programming - a branch of psychology developed in the 1960s which combines language, body movement and thought to optimise self-control and development, and relationships and communications with others. NLP research has fuelled much of the analytical aspects of modern popular body language, notably mirroring and eye movements.
palm - inside surface of the hand - significant in body language because an open palm has for thousands of years indicated that no weapon is concealed, which survives as perhaps a genetically inherited signal of peace, cooperation, submissiveness, etc.
phallus/phallic - phallus means penis, from the ancient Greek word phallos of the same meaning. Phallic refers to something which looks like or represents a penis, often called a phallic symbol. Phallic symbols are prevalent in psychology and aspects of flirting or sexual body language. The female equivalent term is a yonic symbol, from yoni, Hindu for vulva and a symbolic circular stone representing divine procreation. Yoni was originally an old Sanskrit word, meaning source or womb.
physiognomy - an obscure yet related concept to body language. Physiognomy refers to facial features and expressions which indicate the person's character or nature, or ethnic origin. The word physiognomy is derived from medieval Latin, and earlier Greek (phusiognominia), meaning (the art or capability of) judging a person's nature from his/her facial features and expressions.
physiology - the branch of biology concerned with how living organisms function, notably parts of the human body.
physiological signals - body language produced by the unconscious basic brain which controls bodily functions, which in body language can be signals such as sweating, blushing, breathlessness, yawning, weeping, feeling faint, nauseous, repulsion, etc.
primary emotions - first identified by Charles Darwin, typically represented as happiness, sadness, disgust, anger, fear, surprise, and linked to universal facial expressions and recognition.
proxemics - the technical term for the personal space aspect of body language. The word and much of the fundamental theory was devised by Edward Twitchell Hall, an American anthropologist in the late 1950s and early 1960s. The word is Hall's adaptation of the word proximity, meaning closeness or nearness.
pseudo-infantile gestures - gestures of childlike vulnerability, often made to avert attack, attract sympathy, or to induce feelings of compassion, attention, etc.
pupil - the round black centre of the eye which enlarges or contracts to let more or less light into the eye. The pupil generally enlarges (dilates) in the dark, and contracts in brightness. Enlarged pupils are also associated with desire and allure. Enlarged pupils are not a symptom of smoking drugs as commonly believed. This is probably a confusion arising from the fact that conditions are relatively dark when such judgements are made.
rictus - a fixed grimace, usually resulting from shock or nervousness. From Latin word meaning 'open mouth'.
scissor stance - standing leg cross. Various meanings very dependant on context and other signals.
self-motivating gestures - gestures signalling attempting to increase mental work-rate or activity, like tapping the head repeatedly or making circular motions with the hands, as if winding the body up.
show - (noun) - a 'show' is term recently adopted by body language commentators referring to a body language signal. The term is slang really, not technical. For terminology to become casually 'hip' in this way reflects the mainstream appeal of body language as a subject.
steepling - forming the fingers into a a pointed roof shape, often signalling elevated thinking or arrogance.
submission/submissive - describing body language which signals inferiority feelings towards another person. May be conscious and formal as in bowing, or unconscious as in slightly lowering the head and stance.
synchronizing - a technical term equating to mirroring or matching of body language between two people. Synchronizing is technically more appropriate since it naturally includes audible signals (voice pace and pitch, etc), whereas the mirroring term normally makes people think of visual signals only. The principles of synchronized body language definitely include audible signals in addition to physical visual signs. See mirroring.
tell - (noun) - a 'tell' - a slang term similar to 'a show' recently adopted by body language commentators which means a signal.
tie signs/signals - signals between lovers or intimate couples which discreetly convey messages to each other and which are not usually intended for anyone else.

body language references sources and books

Some of the older books listed here have since been republished by different publishers.
Willhelm Wundt, The Language of Gestures, 1921
Charles Darwin, The Expressions of the Emotions in Man and Animals, 1872, Murray
Edward Twitchell Hall, The Silent Language, 1959, Doubleday
E T Hall, Proxemics - A Study of Man's Spatial Relationship, 1963, International Universities Press
E T Hall, The Hidden Dimension, 1966, Doubleday
J S Bruner and R Taquiri, The Perception of People, 1954, Handbook of Social Psychology, Addison Wesley
Robert Ardrey, The Territorial Imperative, 1966, Dell
Desmond Morris, The Naked Ape, 1967, Cape
Julius Fast, Body Language, 1971, Pan
D Hartland and C Tosh, Guide to Body Language, 2001, Caxton
P Ekman, E R Sorenson and W V Friesen, Pan-Cultural Elements in Facial Displays of Emotion, Science Vol 164, No 3875, 4 Apr 1969
C Boyes, Need to Know Body Language, 2005, Harper Collins
E Kuhnke, Body Language for Dummies, 2007, Wiley
Judi James, The Body Language Bible, 2008, Random House
Other significant and founding body language writers include:
Tinbergen, N; Watchtel, P L; Schlefen, A E; Ortega Y Gasset, J; Carpenter, C R; Cherry, C; Dittman, Parloff & Boomer; Frank, L K; Goffman, E; Kinzell, A F; Mehrabian & Wiener; Nielsen, G; Lorenz, K; Mahl, G F.
The author Roger E Axtell writes entertainingly and informatively about international body language and behaviours.

other audible signals

This section is not particularly scientific. It's more for interest and to make a general point:
Body language and the spoken words themselves do not provide all the clues, there are others.
Other audible signals (apart from the words themselves) also give lots of clues about feeling, mood, motive and personality.
Words themselves convey their own meaning, which is another subject, not least when we think about vocabulary, grammar, word-choice, etc. But what about all the other noises and silences from people's mouths?
Other audible signals which are not generally regarded as part of body language or non-verbal communications include for example:

pitch (the contant musical note of the voice)
pace (speed or rate of talking)
volume - from whispering to shouting
volume variation (how volume changes in phrases or longer passages of speech)
intonation and 'musicality' (how the pitch changes according to what is being said)
timbre (quality or sound of the voice, and how this changes)
emphasis (of syllables, words or phrases)
projection (where the voice is being projected to - for example lots of projection, as if talking to a big group, or none, as if mumbling)
pauses, silences and hesitation
'erm's and 'erh's
gasps, tuts, and other intakes and exhalations of breath
habits, such as "I think...," "You know...," "Like...,"
laughing and giggling (which can be interspersed within speech, or separate signals, such as nervous laughter)

and all sorts of other audible/vocal effects, including:

accents and dialects
accent affectations ('received' or conditioned, false or exaggerated - permanent or temporary, for example social climbers, and ordinary people who have a 'telephone voice', or a voice for talking to authority figures)
mistakes (spoonerisms, malapropisms, mispronunciation)
drying up, being lost for words, stuttering (as distinct from a stammer)
overtalking (feeling the need to fill a silence)
interrupting
holding back (someone has something to say but isn't saying it)
coughs and grunts (some types of coughing suggest something other than a tickly throat)
belching and burping
whistling
tongue clicking, teeth-sucking, raspberries, etc

Technically these signals are not body language or non-verbal communications, but all of these sounds (and silences) are quite different from the spoken words, and they can all convey more and/or different meaning compared to the spoken words themselves.
All of this audible signalling happens for a purpose. We might not easily know what the purpose is, but being aware of it is the start of being able to understand it better, in others, and possibly also in ourselves.
Commonly the more noticeable unnecessary signals are embellishments or defensiveness - a kind of showing-off or protection.
Other aspects can be more subtle indicators of social background or aspiration, and thereby of relationship and attitude towards other people.
These other audible signals represent a big and complex area which seems yet to have been researched and analysed to the extent that body language has. Also cultural differences are potentially influential, which hinders translation and specific interpretation.
Despite this, initially simply being aware of these signals will begin to shape an appreciation of their significance, and in many cases their underlying meanings.
Johari enthusiasts might enjoy seeking feedback and asking others about what their own signals mean, that is if you/they are aware of the behaviours.
Certain principles of graphology (handwriting analysis) are helpful in understanding how people use words and language in a wider sense. The style and nature of our written and vocal expressions inevitably provide a reflection of our feelings and personality.

I am grateful to Sandra McCarthy for her help in producing this guide to body language.

http://www.businessballs.com/body-language.htm#body-language-introduction

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empathy, trust, diffusing conflict and handling complaints

empathy skills - for relationships, communications, complaints, customer retention, conflict and levels of listening types

Empathy and trust are a platform for effective understanding, communication and relationships. Empathy and trust are essential to develop solutions, win and retain business, and avoiding or diffusing conflict. Empathy and trust are essential for handling complaints and retaining customers. These days we need to be more effective communicators to be successful in business - and in life. The 'steps of the sale', persuasion, closing techniques, features and benefits do not build rapport or relationships - empathy, trust, understanding and sympathetic communications do. One-sided persuasion is not sustainable and is often insulting, especially when handling complaints. Trust and empathy are far more important in achieving and sustaining successful personal and business relationships.
A certain legacy of the days of the hard-sell is that many consumers and business people are more reluctant to expose themselves to situations where they may be asked to make a decision. This places extra pressure on the process of arriving at a deal, and very special skills are now needed to manage the situations in which business is done.
Most modern gurus in the areas of communications, management and self-development refer in one way or another to the importance of empathy - really understanding the pther person's position and feelings. Being able to 'step back', and achieve a detachment from our own emotions, is essential for effective, constructive relationships.
Whether for selling, customer retention, handling complaints, diffusing conflict, empathy helps.

trust - and understanding the other person's standpoint

Part of the 'empathy process' is establishing trust and rapport. Creating trust and rapport helps us to have sensible 'adult' discussions (see Transational Analysis, which is another useful model for understanding more about empathy).
Establishing trust is about listening and understanding - not necessarily agreeing (which is different) - to the other person. Listening without judging.
A useful focus to aim for when listening to another person is to try to understand how the other person feels, and to discover what they want to achieve.
Dr Stephen Covey (of 'The Seven Habits Of Highly Effective People'® fame) is one of many modern advocates who urge us to strive deeply to understand the other person's point of view.
Sharon Drew Morgen's Buying Facilitation concept is another signpost towards this more open, modern, collaborative approach (and it is not retricted to buying and selling).
Nudge theory - a powerful change-management concept which emerged in the 2000s - is similarly built on a solid ethical philosophy.
It is difficult and rarely appropriate to try to persuade another person to do what we want; instead we must understand what the other person wants, and then try help them to achieve it, which often includes helping them to see the way to do it (which is central to Sharon Drew Morgen's approach).
We must work with people collaboratively, to enable them to see what they want, and then help tem to see the ways achieve it.
The act of doing all this establishes trust.

listening

Of all the communications skills, listening is arguably the one which makes the biggest difference.
The most brilliant and effective speaker utlimately comes undone if he/she fails to listen properly.
Listening does not come naturally to most people, so we need to work hard at it; to stop ourselves 'jumping in' and giving our opinions.
Mostly, people don't listen - they just take turns to speak - we all tend to be more interested in announcing our own views and experiences than really listening and understanding others.
This is ironinic since we all like to be listened to and understood. Covey says rightly that when we are understood we feel affirmed and validated.
He coined the expression: 'Seek first to understand, and then to be understood', which serves as a constant reminder for the need to listen to the other person before you can expect them to listen to you.

levels of listening - 'effective listening'

There are different types of listening. Typically they are presented as levels of listening.
Various people have constructed listening models. Below is an attempt to encompass and extend good current listening theory in an accessible and concise way. Bear in mind that listening is rarely confined merely to words. Sometimes what you are listening to will include other sounds or intonation or verbal/emotional noises. Sometimes listening involves noticing a silence or a pause - nothing - 'dead air' as it's known in broadcasting. You might instead be listening to a musical performance, or an engine noise, or a crowded meeting, for the purpose of understanding and assessing what is actually happening or being said. Also, listening in its fullest sense, as you will see below, ultimately includes many non-verbal and non-audible factors, such as body language, facial expressions, reactions of others, cultural elements, and the reactions of the speaker and the listeners to each other.
In summary first:

passive/not listening - noise in background - ignoring
pretend listening - also called 'responsive listening' - using stock nods and smiles and uhum, yes, of course, etc.
biased/projective listening - 'selective listening' and intentionally disregarding/dismissing the other person's views
misunderstood listening - unconsciously overlaying your own interpretations and making things fit when they don't
attentive listening - personally-driven fact gathering and analysis often with manipulation of the other person
active listening - understanding feelings and gathering facts for largely selfish purposes
empathic listening - understanding and checking facts and feelings, usually to listener's personal agenda
facilitative listening - listening, understanding fully, and helping, with the other person's needs uppermost

Full version:

levels and types of listening
1	Passive Listening or Not Listening	Noise in the background - you are not concentrating on the sounds at all and nothing is registering with you. Ignoring would be another way to describe this type of listening. There is nothing wrong with passive listening if it's truly not important, but passive listening - which we might more aptly call Not Listening - is obviously daft and can be downright dangerous if the communications are important.
2	Pretend Listening	You are not concentrating and will not remember anything because you are actually daydreaming or being distracted by something else even though you will occasionally nod or agree using 'stock' safe replies. This is a common type of listening that grown-ups do with children. This level of listening is called Responsive Listening in some other models, although Pretend Listening is arguably a more apt term, since the word 'responsive' suggests a much higher level of care in the listener, and Pretend Listening reflects that there is an element of deceit on the part of the listener towards the speaker. You will generally know when you are Pretend Listening because the speaker will see that glazed look in your eyes and say firmly something like, "Will you please Listen to me. I'm talking to you!" Especially if the speaker is a small child.
3	Biased Listening or Projective Listening	You are listening and taking in a certain amount of information, but because you already have such firm opposing or different views, or a resistance to the speaker, you are not allowing anything that is said or any noises made to influence your attitude and level of knowledge and understanding. You are projecting your position onto the speaker and the words. You would do this typically because you are under pressure or very defensive. You would normally be aware that you are doing this, which is a big difference between the next level and this one. This third level of listening is also called Selective Listening in some other models.
4	Misunderstood Listening	You have an interest and perhaps some flexibility in respect of the words spoken and your reactions to them, but because you are not thinking objectively and purely you are putting your own interpretation on what you are hearing - making the words fit what you expect or want them to fit. This is a type of projective listening like level three above, but you will not normally be aware that you are doing it until it is pointed out to you. This is a type of listening that is prone to big risks because if you are not made aware of your failings you will leave the discussion under a very wrong impression of the facts and the feelings of the other person. It's a deluded form of listening. Arrogant people like politicians and company directors who surround themselves with agreeable accomplices can fall into seriously ingrained habits of Misunderstood Listening.
5	Attentive 'Data-Only' Listening	You listen only to the content, and fail to receive all the non-verbal sounds and signals, such as tone of voice, facial expression, reaction of speaker to your own listening and reactions. This is fine when the purpose of the communication is merely to gain/convey cold facts and figures, but it is very inadequate for other communications requiring an assessment of feelings and motives, and the circumstances underneath the superficial words or sounds. Attentive Listening is a higher level of listening than Misunderstood Listening because it can gather reliable facts, but it fails to gather and suitably respond to emotions and feelings, and the situation of the other person, which is especially risky if the other person's position is potentially troublesome. This is a common form of listening among 'push and persuade' sales people. Attentive Data-Only Listening is typically driven by a strong personal results motive. It can be highly manipulative and forceful. This type of listening wins battles and loses wars - i.e., it can achieve short-term gains, but tends to wreck chances of building anything constructive and sustainable.
6	Active Listening	This is listening to words, intonation, and observing body language and facial expressions, and giving feedback - but critically this type of listening is empty of two-way emotional involvement, or empathy. There is no transmitted sympathy or identification with the other persons feelings and emotional needs. This listening gathers facts and to a limited extent feelings too, but importantly the listener does not incorporate the feelings into reactions. This can be due to the listener being limited by policy or rules, or by personal insecurity, selfishness, or emotional immaturity. Active listening often includes a manipulative motive or tactics, which are certainly not present in the empathic level next and higher, and which is a simple way to differentiate between Active and Empathic listening.
7	Empathic Listening or Empathetic Listening	You are listening with full attention to the sounds, and all other relevant signals, including: tone of voice other verbal aspects - e.g., pace, volume, breathlessness, flow, style, emphasis facial expression body language cultural or ethnic or other aspects of the person which would affect the way their communications and signals are affecting you feeling - not contained in a single sense - this requires you to have an overall collective appreciation through all relevant senses (taste is perhaps the only sense not employed here) of how the other person is feeling you able to see and feel the situation from the other person's position You are also reacting and giving feedback and checking understanding with the speaker. You will be summarising and probably taking notes and agreeing the notes too if it's an important discussion. You will be honest in expressing disagreement but at the same time expressing genuine understanding, which hopefully (if your listening empathy is of a decent standard) will keep emotions civilized and emotionally under control even for very difficult discussions. You will be instinctively or consciously bringing elements of NLP (neuro-linguistic programming) and Transactional Analysis into the exchange. It will also be possible (for one who knows) to interpret the exchange from the perspective of having improved the relationship and mutual awareness in terms of the Johari Window concept.
8	Facilitative Listening	This goes beyond even empathic listening because it implies and requires that you are able to extend an especially helpful approach to the other person or people. This element is not necessarily present in empathic listening. Another crucial difference is the capability to interpret the cognisance - self-awareness - of the speaker, and the extent to which you are hearing and observing genuine 'adult' sounds and signals (as distinct from emotionally skewed outputs), and to weigh the consequences of the other person's behaviour even if the other person cannot. In this respect you are acting rather like a protector or guardian, in the event that the other person is not being true to themselves. Eric Berne's Transactional Analysis theory comes close to explaining the aspects of mood and 'game-playing' which many people exhibit a lot unconsciously, and which can be very difficult notice using only the aims of and skills within empathic listening. This does not mean that you are making decisions or recommendations for the other person - it means you are exercising caution on their behalf, which is vital if you are in a position of responsibility or influence towards them. Facilitative Listening also requires that you have thought and prepared very carefully about what you will ask and how you will respond, even if you pause to think and prepare your responses during the exchange. Many people do not give themselves adequate pause for thought when listening and responding at an empathic level. Facilitative listening contains a strong additional element of being interested in helping the other person see and understand their options and choices. It's a powerful thing. Facilitative Listening is not generally possible if the circumstances (for example organisational rules and policy, matters of law, emergency, etc) demand a faster resolution and offer little or no leeway for extending help. There is a suggestion of transcendence and self-actualization - as described in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs theory - within the approach to Facilitative Listening. It is devoid of any selfish personal motive, other than to extend help, rather than achieve any sort of normal material gain. The other person's interests are at the forefront, which cannot truthfully be said of any of the preceding levels of listening. Facilitative Listening is not an age or money-related capability. It is an attitude of mind.

©Alan Chapman 2009-11

See also the summary and interpretation of Mehrabian's communications theory, which considers communications from the standpoint of the 'receiver' of communications, and it's implications for the 'sender' of communications.
See Sharon Drew Morgen's theory of Buying Facilitation, which is adaptable beyond selling and business, and which relates strongly to, and has amongst other significant influences, helped to inspire the concept of Facilitative Listening.

handling complaints and customer retention in organizations

The principle of ownership is central to complaints handling: if you receive a complaint or query you continue to own it until it is resolved - even if you escalate it or delegate it - which means that you must always follow-up and check on progress and eventually resolution and satisfaction.
The measurement and monitoring of complaints, from receipt to resolution is also vital: the organisation must have suitable systems and commitment to do this, especially from the very top.
There is a difference between 'understanding' someone and 'agreeing' with them: everyone in the organisation should have the training, encouragement and ability, to understand and to convey that they understand - to see the reality of the other person's position and feelings - whether they are right or wrong - and should have the training and authority to 'agree' where appropriate, which has implications for authorization levels and compensation offerings.
Seek complaints and feedback: the organisation should welcome complaints and should encourage staff to ask for them - complaints enable quality improvement and ultimately improve relations with customers (the vast majority of customers are more loyal after the complaint is resolved satisfactorily than they were before the complaint arose).
Incidentally, from a staff-selection perspective, people with strong right basal brain quadrant - which produces intuition and empathy - make good complaint receivers. Strong left basal enables good processing and follow-up. Strong right frontal enables good creative problem-solving. (See the Benziger page.)
Use the 'over-compensation' principle: always look after complaining customers extremely well - generally regardless of whether they are right or wrong. Organisations often begrudge compensating complaining customers, which is completely illogical, because complaints are relatively rare and the real cost of compensation is relatively inexpensive, and yet the benefits from customer satisfaction, increased loyalty and positive word-of-mouth, are enormous by comparison.

trust and rapport training to improve customer service

Here are some pointers as to how you can develop empathy skills for customer service staff, especially in call-centres, and situations where customer retention is a strong priority.
Use a training exercise to flush out all the 'wrong' ways to handle these customer situations - it's often much easier for a group to identify (via role play and/or syndicates) wrong ways, and then make sure they avoid them. Customers resist strongly being persuaded against their urge to contact and terminate a contract - the persuasive approach immediately polarises customer service representative and customer; the resulting emotional issue then dominates, removing any chance to save the customer. All initial effort must be to establish rapport and understanding - without the rapport nothing can be done.
Use a training exercise to identify rapport-establishing phrases, questions, and then role-play to demonstrate, practice and demonstrate suitable tone - style must be highly sympathetic and interested (the tendency is for tone to be confrontational, competitive, challenging, etc, which makes matters worse). Demonstrate also how it can take several minutes to do this - sometimes several conversations. Through role-play, observe how easy it is to shatter rapport by moving into persuasive mode. Stay 'with' the customer - understand (not necessarily the same as agreeing) and sympathise, allowing the discussion to develop, rather than present an opposing proposition.
Use a training exercise to identify suitable empathic information-gathering questions - what do we need to know in order to help, how to ask for this information, and how to position the need to ask questions in the first place, once initial rapport has been established.
Use a training exercise to identify approaches, and ' ready-made' phrases, to view customers' situations objectively with the customers - 'let's look at this together and see what the options are...' - rather than the tendency to go head-to-head and counter the customer's position with superior argument, justification, or worse still implied or direct threat, such as penalties, etc. (It's easy to fall into the confrontation trap because so much sales training and experience is based on the power of persuasion, which is in itself highly confrontational in defensive scenarios.)
The secret to customer retention is the relationship in the first few seconds - customers are far more likely to rethink and stay if they 'like' the person on the other end of the phone. Certainly a customer will not begin to reconsider if they 'dislike' the other person - instead they become empowered to accelerate and reinforce withdrawal from the moment they feel the slightest bit challenged or opposed.
Role-play sympathetic phrases and tone for this scenario: you meet a friend in the street and learn from them that they have suffered an upsetting experience - listen for the natural empathy and sympathy - there is no instinct here to persuade the friend to 'get a grip' or 'snap out of it' - the natural sympathetic response is the basis of building trust and empathy and rapport.
Trust, rapport, empathy and understanding are powerful relationship-builders, and form the bedrock of sustainable business and careers.

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Cross-Cultural Communication

By
Michelle LeBaron

July 2003

All communication is cultural -- it draws on ways we have learned to speak and give nonverbal messages. We do not always communicate the same way from day to day, since factors like context, individual personality, and mood interact with the variety of cultural influences we have internalized that influence our choices. Communication is interactive, so an important influence on its effectiveness is our relationship with others. Do they hear and understand what we are trying to say? Are they listening well? Are we listening well in response? Do their responses show that they understand the words and the meanings behind the words we have chosen? Is the mood positive and receptive? Is there trust between them and us? Are there differences that relate to ineffective communication, divergent goals or interests, or fundamentally different ways of seeing the world? The answers to these questions will give us some clues about the effectiveness of our communication and the ease with which we may be able to move through conflict.

Additional insights into cross-cultural communication are offered by Beyond Intractability project participants.

The challenge is that even with all the good will in the world, miscommunication is likely to happen, especially when there are significant cultural differences between communicators. Miscommunication may lead to conflict, or aggravate conflict that already exists. We make -- whether it is clear to us or not -- quite different meaning of the world, our places in it, and our relationships with others. In this module, cross-cultural communication will be outlined and demonstrated by examples of ideas, attitudes, and behaviors involving four variables:

Time and Space
Fate and Personal Responsibility
Face and Face-Saving
Nonverbal Communication

As our familiarity with these different starting points increases, we are cultivating cultural fluency -- awareness of the ways cultures operate in communication and conflict, and the ability to respond effectively to these differences.

Time and Space[1]

Time is one of the most central differences that separate cultures and cultural ways of doing things. In the West, time tends to be seen as quantitative, measured in units that reflect the march of progress. It is logical, sequential, and present-focused, moving with incremental certainty toward a future the ego cannot touch and a past that is not a part of now. Novinger calls the United States a "chronocracy," in which there is such reverence for efficiency and the success of economic endeavors that the expression "time is money" is frequently heard.[2] This approach to time is called monochronic -- it is an approach that favors linear structure and focus on one event or interaction at a time. Robert's Rules of Order, observed in many Western meetings, enforce a monochronic idea of time.

In the East, time feels like it has unlimited continuity, an unraveling rather than a strict boundary. Birth and death are not such absolute ends since the universe continues and humans, though changing form, continue as part of it. People may attend to many things happening at once in this approach to time, called polychronous. This may mean many conversations in a moment (such as a meeting in which people speak simultaneously, "talking over" each other as they discuss their subjects), or many times and peoples during one process (such as a ceremony in which those family members who have died are felt to be present as well as those yet to be born into the family).

A good place to look to understand the Eastern idea of time is India. There, time is seen as moving endlessly through various cycles, becoming and vanishing. Time stretches far beyond the human ego or lifetime. There is a certain timeless quality to time, an aesthetic almost too intricate and vast for the human mind to comprehend. Consider this description of an aeon, the unit of time which elapses between the origin and destruction of a world system: "Suppose there is a mountain, of very hard rock, much bigger than the Himalayas; and suppose that a man, with a piece of the very finest cloth of Benares, once every century should touch that mountain ever so slightly -- then the time it would take him to wear away the entire mountain would be about the time of an Aeon."[3]

Differences over time can play out in painful and dramatic ways in negotiation or conflict-resolution processes. An example of differences over time comes from a negotiation process related to a land claim that took place in Canada. First Nations people met with representatives from local, regional, and national governments to introduce themselves and begin their work. During this first meeting, First Nations people took time to tell the stories of their people and their relationships to the land over the past seven generations. They spoke of the spirit of the land, the kinds of things their people have traditionally done on the land, and their sacred connection to it. They spoke in circular ways, weaving themes, feelings, ideas, and experiences together as they remembered seven generations into the past and projected seven generations forward.

When it was the government representatives' chance to speak, they projected flow charts showing internal processes for decision-making and spoke in present-focused ways about their intentions for entering the negotiation process. The flow charts were linear and spare in their lack of narrative, arising from the bureaucratic culture from which the government representatives came. Two different conceptions of time: in one, time stretches, loops forward and back, past and future are both present in this time. In the other, time begins with the present moment and extends into the horizon in which the matters at hand will be decided.

Neither side felt satisfied with this first meeting. No one addressed the differences in how time was seen and held directly, but everyone was aware that they were not "on the same page." Each side felt some frustration with the other. Their notions of time were embedded in their understandings of the world, and these understandings informed their common sense about how to proceed in negotiations. Because neither side was completely aware of these different notions of time, it was difficult for the negotiations to proceed, and difficult for each side to trust the other. Their different ideas of time made communication challenging.

This meeting took place in the early 1990s. Of course, in this modern age of high-speed communication, no group is completely disconnected from another. Each group -- government and First Nations representatives -- has had some exposure to the other's ideas of time, space, and ideas about appropriate approaches to negotiation. Each has found ways to adapt. How this adaptation takes place, and whether it takes place without one side feeling they are forced to give in to the other, has a significant impact on the course of the negotiations.

It is also true that cultural approaches to time or communication are not always applied in good faith, but may serve a variety of motives. Asserting power, superiority, advantage, or control over the course of the negotiations may be a motive wrapped up in certain cultural behaviors (for example, the government representatives' detailed emphasis on ratification procedures may have conveyed an implicit message of control, or the First Nations' attention to the past may have emphasized the advantages of being aware of history). Culture and cultural beliefs may be used as a tactic by negotiators; for this reason, it is important that parties be involved in collaborative-process design when addressing intractable conflicts. As people from different cultural backgrounds work together to design a process to address the issues that divide them, they can ask questions about cultural preferences about time and space and how these may affect a negotiation or conflict-resolution process, and thus inoculate against the use of culture as a tactic or an instrument to advance power.

Any one example will show us only a glimpse of approaches to time as a confounding variable across cultures. In fact, ideas of time have a great deal of complexity buried within them. Western concepts of time as a straight line emanating from no one in particular obscure the idea that there are purposive forces at work in time, a common idea in indigenous and Eastern ways of thought. From an Eastern or indigenous perspective, Spirit operates within space and time, so time is alive with purpose and specific meanings may be discerned from events. A party to a negotiation who subscribes to this idea of time may also have ideas about fate, destiny, and the importance of uncovering "right relationship" and "right action." If time is a circle, an unraveling ball of twine, a spiral, an unfolding of stories already written, or a play in which much of the set is invisible, then relationships and meanings can be uncovered to inform current actions. Time, in this polychronic perspective, is connected to other peoples as well as periods of history.

This is why a polychronic perspective is often associated with a communitarian starting point. The focus on the collective, or group, stretching forward and back, animates the polychronic view of time. In more monochronic settings, an individualist way of life is more easily accommodated. Individualists can more easily extract moments in time, and individuals themselves, from the networks around them. If time is a straight line stretching forward and not back, then fate or destiny may be less compelling. (For more on this, see the essay on Communication Tools for Understanding Cultural Difference.)

Fate and Personal Responsibility

Another important variable affecting communication across cultures is fate and personal responsibility. This refers to the degree to which we feel ourselves the masters of our lives, versus the degree to which we see ourselves as subject to things outside our control. Another way to look at this is to ask how much we see ourselves able to change and maneuver, to choose the course of our lives and relationships. Some have drawn a parallel between the emphasis on personal responsibility in North American settings and the landscape itself.[4] The North American landscape is vast, with large spaces of unpopulated territory. The frontier mentality of "conquering" the wilderness, and the expansiveness of the land stretching huge distances, may relate to generally high levels of confidence in the ability to shape and choose our destinies.

In this expansive landscape, many children grow up with an epic sense of life, where ideas are big, and hope springs eternal. When they experience setbacks, they are encouraged to redouble their efforts, to "try, try again." Action, efficacy, and achievement are emphasized and expected. Free will is enshrined in laws and enforced by courts.

Now consider places in the world with much smaller territory, whose history reflects repeated conquest and harsh struggles: Northern Ireland, Mexico, Israel, Palestine. In these places, there is more emphasis on destiny's role in human life. In Mexico, there is a legacy of poverty, invasion, and territorial mutilation. Mexicans are more likely to see struggles as inevitable or unavoidable. Their fatalistic attitude is expressed in their way of responding to failure or accident by saying "ni modo" ("no way" or "tough luck"), meaning that the setback was destined.

This variable is important to understanding cultural conflict. If someone invested in free will crosses paths with someone more fatalistic in orientation, miscommunication is likely. The first person may expect action and accountability. Failing to see it, they may conclude that the second is lazy, obstructionist, or dishonest. The second person will expect respect for the natural order of things. Failing to see it, they may conclude that the first is coercive or irreverent, inflated in his ideas of what can be accomplished or changed.

Face and Face-Saving

Another important cultural variable relates to face and face-saving. Face is important across cultures, yet the dynamics of face and face-saving play out differently. Face is defined in many different ways in the cross-cultural communication literature. Novinger says it is "the value or standing a person has in the eyes of others...and that it relate[s] to pride or self-respect."[5] Others have defined it as "the negotiated public image, mutually granted each other by participants in [communication]."[6] In this broader definition, face includes ideas of status, power, courtesy, insider and outsider relations, humor, and respect. In many cultures, maintaining face is of great importance, though ideas of how to do this vary.

The starting points of individualism and communitarianism are closely related to face. If I see myself as a self-determining individual, then face has to do with preserving my image with others and myself. I can and should exert control in situations to achieve this goal. I may do this by taking a competitive stance in negotiations or confronting someone who I perceive to have wronged me. I may be comfortable in a mediation where the other party and I meet face to face and frankly discuss our differences.

If I see my primary identification as a group member, then considerations about face involve my group. Direct confrontation or problem-solving with others may reflect poorly on my group, or disturb overall community harmony. I may prefer to avoid criticism of others, even when the disappointment I have concealed may come out in other, more damaging ways later. When there is conflict that cannot be avoided, I may prefer a third party who acts as a shuttle between me and the other people involved in the conflict. Since no direct confrontation takes place, face is preserved and potential damage to the relationships or networks of relationships is minimized.

Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal communication is hugely important in any interaction with others; its importance is multiplied across cultures. This is because we tend to look for nonverbal cues when verbal messages are unclear or ambiguous, as they are more likely to be across cultures (especially when different languages are being used). Since nonverbal behavior arises from our cultural common sense -- our ideas about what is appropriate, normal, and effective as communication in relationships -- we use different systems of understanding gestures, posture, silence, spacial relations, emotional expression, touch, physical appearance, and other nonverbal cues. Cultures also attribute different degrees of importance to verbal and nonverbal behavior.

Low-context cultures like the United States and Canada tend to give relatively less emphasis to nonverbal communication. This does not mean that nonverbal communication does not happen, or that it is unimportant, but that people in these settings tend to place less importance on it than on the literal meanings of words themselves. In high-context settings such as Japan or Colombia, understanding the nonverbal components of communication is relatively more important to receiving the intended meaning of the communication as a whole.

Some elements of nonverbal communication are consistent across cultures. For example, research has shown that the emotions of enjoyment, anger, fear, sadness, disgust, and surprise are expressed in similar ways by people around the world.[7] Differences surface with respect to which emotions are acceptable to display in various cultural settings, and by whom. For instance, it may be more social acceptable in some settings in the United States for women to show fear, but not anger, and for men to display anger, but not fear.[8] At the same time, interpretation of facial expressions across cultures is difficult. In China and Japan, for example, a facial expression that would be recognized around the world as conveying happiness may actually express anger or mask sadness, both of which are unacceptable to show overtly.[9]

These differences of interpretation may lead to conflict, or escalate existing conflict. Suppose a Japanese person is explaining her absence from negotiations due to a death in her family. She may do so with a smile, based on her cultural belief that it is not appropriate to inflict the pain of grief on others. For a Westerner who understands smiles to mean friendliness and happiness, this smile may seem incongruous and even cold, under the circumstances. Even though some facial expressions may be similar across cultures, their interpretations remain culture-specific. It is important to understand something about cultural starting-points and values in order to interpret emotions expressed in cross-cultural interactions.

Another variable across cultures has to do with proxemics, or ways of relating to space. Crossing cultures, we encounter very different ideas about polite space for conversations and negotiations. North Americans tend to prefer a large amount of space, perhaps because they are surrounded by it in their homes and countryside. Europeans tend to stand more closely with each other when talking, and are accustomed to smaller personal spaces. In a comparison of North American and French children on a beach, a researcher noticed that the French children tended to stay in a relatively small space near their parents, while U.S. children ranged up and down a large area of the beach.[10]

The difficulty with space preferences is not that they exist, but the judgments that get attached to them. If someone is accustomed to standing or sitting very close when they are talking with another, they may see the other's attempt to create more space as evidence of coldness, condescension, or a lack of interest. Those who are accustomed to more personal space may view attempts to get closer as pushy, disrespectful, or aggressive. Neither is correct -- they are simply different.[11]

Also related to space is the degree of comfort we feel moving furniture or other objects. It is said that a German executive working in the United States became so upset with visitors to his office moving the guest chair to suit themselves that he had it bolted to the floor.[12] Contrast this with U.S. and Canadian mediators and conflict-resolution trainers, whose first step in preparing for a meeting is not infrequently a complete rearrangement of the furniture.

Finally, line-waiting behavior and behavior in group settings like grocery stores or government offices is culturally-influenced. Novinger reports that the English and U.S. Americans are serious about standing in lines, in accordance with their beliefs in democracy and the principle of "first come, first served."[13] The French, on the other hand, have a practice of resquillage, or line jumping, that irritates many British and U.S. Americans. In another example, immigrants from Armenia report that it is difficult to adjust to a system of waiting in line, when their home context permitted one member of a family to save spots for several others.

These examples of differences related to nonverbal communication are only the tip of the iceberg. Careful observation, ongoing study from a variety of sources, and cultivating relationships across cultures will all help develop the cultural fluency to work effectively with nonverbal communication differences.

Summary

Each of the variables discussed in this module -- time and space, personal responsibility and fate, face and face-saving, and nonverbal communication -- are much more complex than it is possible to convey. Each of them influences the course of communications, and can be responsible for conflict or the escalation of conflict when it leads to miscommunication or misinterpretation. A culturally-fluent approach to conflict means working over time to understand these and other ways communication varies across cultures, and applying these understandings in order to enhance relationships across differences.

[1] Many of these ideas are discussed in more detail in LeBaron, Michelle. Bridging Cultural Conflicts. A New Approach for a Changing World. San Francisco: Jossey Bass, 2003.

[2] Novinger, Tracy. Intercultural Communication. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2001, P. 84.

[3] Conze, Edward. Buddhism: Its Essence and Development. New York: HarperCollins, 1951, p. 49.

[4] For more about correspondences between landscape and national psyches, see: Novinger, Tracy. Intercultural Communication. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2001.

[5] Novinger, p. 31

[6] Okun, Barbara F., Fried, Jane, Okun, Marcia L. Understanding Diversity. A Learning as Practice Primer. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing, 1999, pp. 59-60.

[7] Ibid., p. 78.

[8] Ibid.

[9] Novinger, p. 65.

[10] Ibid., p. 67.

[11] Ibid., pp. 68-69.

[12] Ibid., p. 68.

[13] Ibid.

---------

Communicate effectively with culturally diverse persons

The communication process
Show respect for cultural diversity in all communication with clients, families, staff and others
Use communication constructively to develop and maintain effective relationships, mutual trust and confidence
Where language barriers exist, make efforts to communicate in the most effective way possible
Seek assistance from interpreters or other persons as required

You might be from an English-speaking background or you might be from a culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) background. Whatever your cultural and linguistic background, you will find this topic relevant. Note: the acronym CALD refers to people who are from diverse cultural and/or linguistic backgrounds (not English-speaking).
The first section of this topic focuses on people from a CALD background who are recent migrants to Australia. The latter part of the section covers communicating with Australian people of an English-speaking cultural and linguistic background.
In short, you will learn about communicating with people who are not from your own cultural and linguistic background.
On completion of this topic you will be able to:

demonstrate respect for cultural diversity in all communication with clients, their families, staff, customers and others
use communication constructively to develop and maintain effective relationships, mutual trust and confidence
make efforts where language barriers exist, to communicate in the most effective way possible
seek assistance from interpreters or other persons as required.

The communication process

We will look at the communication process to introduce ways we can improve communication with the people you work with.
Being able to effectively communicate with clients and colleagues will make your work easier and more enjoyable.
Now let’s look more closely at all the elements of the communication process. An understanding of the factors involved in communicating provides a good base for improving communication between people who do not speak the same language.
As noted previously, while language is important to communication, especially for complex messages, it is possible to communicate without the use of speech. As the graph below indicates, actual words make up only a small proportion of the process.
Drawing of pie chart showing three elements of face-to-face communication: tone 30%, verbal 10%, body language 60%

Three elements of face-to-face communication

As the chart above illustrates, the communication process is 90% made up of non-verbal information. That is, language-specific words account for only 10% of communication. The rest of the communication process is made up of tone and body language.

Tone: the way we speak

fast or slow
gentle or aggressive
pauses.

Body language: our mannerisms and demeanour

facial expressions
gaze—looking at the other person or away from them; paying attention or not
gestures—arm and hand movements
posture—leaning forward or back; relaxed or stiff
distance from the other person—too close or too far

Activity 1

What things are included in the three elements of communication?
Click here for Activity 1.

Activity 2

In the following activity you will revise your understanding of the elements of communication.
Click here for Activity 2.

The essential nature of communication

Communication is essential in any workplace. Without communication it is not possible to know a client’s wants or needs or how best to offer care. However communicating effectively with people with whom you do not share a language can be very challenging.
Language is a very important component of the communication process, but not speaking the same language as another person does not mean that we cannot communicate with them.
There are many other factors that play a part in how we communicate. In fact, these other factors can be even more powerful than words. The way we go about communicating with another person—even when we do not speak the same language—can have an enormous impact on the way we make that person feel and the way they will respond to us.
Back to top

Show respect for cultural diversity in all communication with clients, families, staff and others

Why don’t they speak English?

A question on many English-speaking peoples’ minds is: ‘Why don’t they speak English?’ The following section answers this common question and aims to promote an appreciation and respect for cultural and linguistic diversity.
Learning a new language as an adult is not an easy task. Many factors can make it particularly difficult and, in some cases, almost impossible.
We look at some of those factors below:

Some languages are more similar to English than others. The more similar the first language, the easier it is to learn English.
Languages such as Italian and German share an alphabet and script with English. There are even strong similarities between certain words.
Japanese and English have nothing in common. Each language uses a different script—alphabet and characters—and utilises totally differing sounds and words. It is much harder to learn English from Japanese than it is from German or Italian.
English proficiency does not reflect on certain groups’ will to learn, but rather on the complexity of the task.

A person’s level of literacy in their first language may have a strong impact on their ability to learn another language as an adult. This is particularly relevant to learning to read and write as well as to speak a new language.
For migrants who came to Australia in the 1950s and 1960s, there were not many opportunities for them to attend English classes. Where English classes were available, they were often inadequate and grouped people from many different language backgrounds and varying levels of formal education altogether. English classes were often unable to meet learners’ needs.
For many migrants the workplace did not offer the opportunity to learn or practise English skills. Consider that:

English is not essential for many semi-skilled jobs.
Many migrants worked in jobs that did not involve much talking.
The English used at work often related only to the job and the workers did not have much practice with conversational English.

Outside working hours, most people spend their time with family and friends and these were usually people of the same background and speaking the same native language. Many migrants left behind close family and friends and a familiar cultural environment. Therefore, as a group they often re-created a cultural environment where they could feel more at home, speaking the same language.
Once retired, many migrants mix mostly with family and friends with whom they can share memories and cultural experiences in their own language. Much of the English learnt at work is often lost after retirement when retirees stop spending as much time around English-speaking people.
By the time they are in their 70s and 80s, most of the post World War II migrants would have been retired for at least 10–15 years. Once retired, they are likely to have been speaking almost exclusively in their native language.
Some migrants have said that they shielded themselves from the wider English-speaking community due to feelings of rejection, especially as prejudice against them was not uncommon.
English proficiency among older women migrants is often even lower than that of migrant men. Many women stay (or stayed) at home to raise children and look after the house which meant that they had very little opportunity to learn English.
Older people generally tend to go back to speaking their native language—even when they are quite proficient in English—because they find the native language easier to use. Some older people develop memory difficulties (such as Alzheimer’s disease) and the first language that they lose is the one that they had acquired last, ie English.
Further, a number of older migrants come to Australia late in life to join their children and grandchildren. These older people often have very limited exposure to the wider community and probably will not learn any English at all.
Younger migrants vary in their English-language abilities. Some will already have proficiency in English while others will come with very little English. With couples, sometimes one will speak more English than the other.

Activity 3

In this activity you will revise the reasons why many older migrants do not speak English very well.
Click here for Activity 3
Back to top

Use communication constructively to develop and maintain effective relationships, mutual trust and confidence

Communication strategies

If you are from an English-speaking background, here are a few strategies to adopt when working with people who are from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds.

Consider your choice of language. Some idioms or slang language may not be understood by people from another linguistic background (or people within the same linguistic group but from a different generation).
The ‘rules’ relating to non-verbal communication are generally understood within a certain culture but vary from culture to culture and from generation to generation. These rules are particularly relevant in the areas of touching and the use of personal space. Take the time to understand these for the different cultures you are working with.
If colleagues do not share English as their first language, make sure you give adequate time in communication and obtain feedback to clarify understanding.
Avoid inappropriate or gratuitous references to a person’s culture, etc. For example, ‘The new person who will be starting work next week is a woman by the name of Mary Connolly. She’s Anglo-Indian.’

If it is not necessary to identify a person’s cultural identity, simply use the term ‘Australian’. By mentioning people’s ethnic group, race, culture or religion, we are communicating that they are ‘different’—from the ‘norm’. If it is necessary to identify a person’s cultural identity, use terms such as ‘New Zealand-born’ or ‘Arabic-speaking’.
Back to top

Where language barriers exist, make efforts to communicate in the most effective way possible

Why do cultural misunderstandings happen?

Drawing of a woman with a head scarf and a young man in jeans. Around them are the words: use of silence; personal space; eye contact; cultural interpretations of social issues; cultural responses to emotions; non-verbal communication

There may be many cultural differences between people that can cause misunderstandings

Cultural misunderstandings can occur when people don’t share or understand the ‘rules’ of a particular culture. The ‘rules’ of how you behave are to do with what people expect you to do in certain situations. People can learn the rules of a new culture by watching people and through asking questions. It is cultural values that lead to expectations and ‘rules’ about how people behave.

Areas of misunderstanding

Whether we are from English-speaking background or from CALD background, you will find this next section relevant—as it is important for all of us to be aware of how misunderstanding can occur across cultures.
Some common areas of mis-understanding are:

polite forms of language
idioms
questions
compliments
dress
social customs
responding to good and bad news
space
time.

Polite forms of language

In English when we ask people to do something, we don’t usually use the direct imperative form (an order). For example:
Close the window!
If we ask someone to close a window, we might say:
Would you mind closing the window?Could you please close the window? Can we close the window?Do you mind if I close the window?Close the window please.Sorry to interrupt you, but can you please close the window?
We usually soften the language or use idioms. This makes the request more indirect. How would you ask someone to close a window in your language? Do you use a more direct form of language?
Sometimes people with limited English language skills may translate a request or an expression literally from their native language. This might appear as a direct or imperative form.

Communicate effectively with culturally diverse persons

demonstrate respect for cultural diversity in all communication with clients, their families, staff, customers and others
use communication constructively to develop and maintain effective relationships, mutual trust and confidence
make efforts where language barriers exist, to communicate in the most effective way possible
seek assistance from interpreters or other persons as required.

The communication process

Three elements of face-to-face communication

Tone: the way we speak

fast or slow
gentle or aggressive
pauses.

Body language: our mannerisms and demeanour

facial expressions
gaze—looking at the other person or away from them; paying attention or not
gestures—arm and hand movements
posture—leaning forward or back; relaxed or stiff
distance from the other person—too close or too far

Activity 1

What things are included in the three elements of communication?
Click here for Activity 1.

Activity 2

In the following activity you will revise your understanding of the elements of communication.
Click here for Activity 2.

The essential nature of communication

Show respect for cultural diversity in all communication with clients, families, staff and others

Why don’t they speak English?

Some languages are more similar to English than others. The more similar the first language, the easier it is to learn English.
Languages such as Italian and German share an alphabet and script with English. There are even strong similarities between certain words.
Japanese and English have nothing in common. Each language uses a different script—alphabet and characters—and utilises totally differing sounds and words. It is much harder to learn English from Japanese than it is from German or Italian.
English proficiency does not reflect on certain groups’ will to learn, but rather on the complexity of the task.

English is not essential for many semi-skilled jobs.
Many migrants worked in jobs that did not involve much talking.
The English used at work often related only to the job and the workers did not have much practice with conversational English.

Activity 3

In this activity you will revise the reasons why many older migrants do not speak English very well.
Click here for Activity 3
Back to top

Use communication constructively to develop and maintain effective relationships, mutual trust and confidence

Communication strategies

If you are from an English-speaking background, here are a few strategies to adopt when working with people who are from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds.

Consider your choice of language. Some idioms or slang language may not be understood by people from another linguistic background (or people within the same linguistic group but from a different generation).
The ‘rules’ relating to non-verbal communication are generally understood within a certain culture but vary from culture to culture and from generation to generation. These rules are particularly relevant in the areas of touching and the use of personal space. Take the time to understand these for the different cultures you are working with.
If colleagues do not share English as their first language, make sure you give adequate time in communication and obtain feedback to clarify understanding.
Avoid inappropriate or gratuitous references to a person’s culture, etc. For example, ‘The new person who will be starting work next week is a woman by the name of Mary Connolly. She’s Anglo-Indian.’

Where language barriers exist, make efforts to communicate in the most effective way possible

Why do cultural misunderstandings happen?

There may be many cultural differences between people that can cause misunderstandings

Areas of misunderstanding

polite forms of language
idioms
questions
compliments
dress
social customs
responding to good and bad news
space
time.

Polite forms of language

Training Manual on Victims of Torture

Printable version (PDF, 214 KB)

Refugee Protection Division
Professional Development Branch

April 2004

INTRODUCTION

About the Training Manual

The Training Manual on Victims of Torture provides guidance to IRB Members and Refugee Protection Officers (RPOs) of the Refugee Protection Division (RPD) on dealing with victims of torture in the context of refugee status determination proceedings. These materials were prepared to accompany a national training workshop on victims of torture and to serve as a resource for Members and RPOs after the workshop. The IRB would like to acknowledge the contribution of the Canadian Centre for Victims of Torture (CCVT) and Réseau d'intervention auprès des personnes ayant subi la violence organisée (RIVO) in the development of this Manual.

The Objectives of the Training Manual

It is a sad fact that some of the refugee claimants who come before the Board have been subjected to torture - a form of treatment that is so shocking and horrible it is almost unimaginable to us. They are walking reminders of the worst ways people can behave to fellow human beings. Yet come they do. And their claims need to be adjudicated. This Manual will make you more aware of, and sensitive to, issues faced by victims of torture, and better able to conduct a hearing involving a victim of torture. It will help you conduct a full and proper examination of the claim when dealing with a victim of torture, while at the same time taking any special needs they may have into account. The Manual also addresses issues relating to credibility, false allegations of torture, and corroborating medical/psychiatric reports.
Pointing Finger

Here are the some of the questions this Manual will address:

How do I reduce the risk of re-traumatizing the claimant?
Why do victims of torture all seem to act differently?
What do I do when the claimant has difficulty answering my questions?
How does trauma affect memory?
How can I be most effective in my questioning?
How do I question the author of a medical/psychiatric report when I suspect the claimant is malingering?
How do I recognise and address vicarious traumatization?

Scope of the Training Manual

The principles put forward in this Manual apply to all victims of torture who come before the Board, regardless of whether the claim for refugee protection is based on the experience of torture.
The Manual does not deal with legal issues relating to the definition of torture and the status determination of persons who have been tortured or may be at risk of torture if returned to their country. For further guidance on these legal issues, please refer to the Legal Services publication: "Consolidated Grounds: Persons in Need of Protection" (May 2002).

ABOUT TORTURE

It is a modern paradox that the systemic and widespread use of torture today is unprecedented, at the same time that it is so widely prohibited by international measures.^{Note 1}
The 1948 UNDeclaration of Human Rights states clearly that no one should be subjected to torture. Not to be subjected to torture is one of the few rights that may not be derogated:there can be no justification for torture nor mitigating circumstances for its practice. Other international instruments include the 1975 Declaration Against Torture and the 1984 Convention Against Torture. However, and in spite of this universal condemnation, Amnesty International describes torture as the "twentieth century epidemic." Today, torture is practised in over 100 countries -- more than half of the world's countries.^{Note 2}
Not surprisingly, many of those countries in which torture has been reported, are refugee-producing. It is believed that a significant number of refugee claimants appearing before the IRB's Refugee Protection Division are victims of torture.
What is torture?^{Note 3} In its simplest terms, torture is the infliction of severe physical or mental pain or suffering. An important feature of torture is that the torturer has complete physical control over the victim. A feeling of helplessness remains with the victim long after the torture episode is over. Pain and suffering are an integral part of torture, but the main purpose is not really pain and suffering but rather breaking of the will. Torture is directed towards instilling and reinforcing a sense of powerlessness and terror in victims and the societies in which they live. Torture is a purposeful, systematic activity - the deliberate infliction of pain by one person on another. This feature makes torture very different from trauma created in other circumstances such as a natural disaster.

Istanbul Protocol

"One of the central aims of torture is to reduce an individual to a position of extreme helplessness and distress than can lead to a deterioration of cognitive, emotional and behavioural functions. Thus, torture is a means of attacking an individual's fundamental modes of psychological and social functioning. Under such circumstances, the torturer strives not only to incapacitate physically a victim but also to disintegrate the individual's personality… By dehumanizing and breaking the will of their victims, torturers set horrific examples for those who later come in contact with the victim. In this way, torture can break or damage the will and coherence of entire communities. In addition, torture can profoundly damage intimate relationships between spouses, parents, children and other family members and relationships between the victims and their communities."^{Note 4}

Definitions

Article 1 of the international Convention Against Torture^{Note 5}

For the purposes of this Convention, torture means any act by which severe pain or suffering, whether physical or mental, is intentionally inflicted on a person for such purposes as obtaining from him or a third person information or a confession, punishing him for an act he or a third person has committed or is suspected of having committed, or intimidating or coercing him or a third person, or for any reason based on discrimination of any kind, when such pain or suffering is inflicted by or at the instigation of or with the consent or acquiescence of a public official or other person acting in an official capacity. It does not include pain or suffering arising only from, inherent in or incidental to lawful sanctions.

The World Medical Association in its "Declaration of Tokyo" (1975) defines torture as follows:

For the purpose of this declaration, torture is defined as the deliberate, systematic or wanton infliction of physical or mental suffering by one or more persons acting alone or on the orders of any authority, to force another person to yield information, to make a confession, or for any other reason.

Methods of Torture

Following is a list of some common methods of torture. It would be impossible to create an exhaustive list all of methods of torture currently in use in the world. Torturers continue to develop new and more sophisticated methods of torture and ways to hide evidence of the torture.

Physical Torture

blunt trauma: beating, punching, kicking, slapping, whipping, truncheons, falling down
positional torture: forced body positions, suspension, stretching limbs, constraint of movement, binding
crush injuries
burning: instruments, cigarettes, scalding liquid, caustic substance
stabbing with knife, cutting with knife
wires under nails, electric shock
mutilating body parts, traumatic removal of body parts
amputation of digits and limbs, removal of organs
asphyxiations: drowning, smothering, choking, chemicals
chemical exposures in wounds, body cavities
attacks by animals, dental torture
exhaustion, forced labour, starvation

Sexual Torture

rape, insertion of objects, sexual humiliation
trauma to sexual organs, forced sexual acts, forced nudity

Psychological Torture

threatening to harm or kill the victim or the victim's relatives
forced witnessing or hearing the torture of others
mock execution, forced to harm others
denigration and humiliations, threats of attacks by animals
violations of taboos, violation of religion

Environmental Torture

sleep, light or hygiene deprivation
exposure to extremes of temperature, sensory overload - loud noises, lights
isolation
denial of privacy, overcrowding

Pharmacological Torture

hallucinatory drugs, toxic doses of sedatives or muscle-paralyzing drugs

Examples of Specific Types of Torture

Bell: the person's head is placed within a pail or other metal container which is then struck repeatedly, causing sudden loud sounds and reverberations
Buzzer: the person is repeatedly shocked through wires or other conducting objects that are attached to parts of the body (e.g., ears, eyes, eyelids, genitals, gums, soles of feet)
Falanga/Falaka/Basinado: repeated application of blunt trauma to the feet
Necklacing: a tire, filled with gasoline or similar flammable liquid, is placed around the person's neck and set afire; also, a method of psychological torture in which a landmine, grenade, or similar explosive is tied around the person's neck in a way that it is difficult or impossible to remove without detonation
Parrot's perch: hanging the victim from a stick between knees and arms bound tightly together
Submarino: covering the head with plastic bag, closure of the mouth and the nose, pressure or ligature around the neck, or forced aspiration of dusts, cement, hot peppers, etc. ("dry submarino") or forcible immersion of the head into water, often contaminated with urine, feces, vomit, or other impurities ("wet submarino")
Suspensions: "cross suspension" (spreading arms and tying them to horizontal bar or beam), "butchery suspension" (fixation of hands upwards, together or one by one), "reverse butchery suspension" (fixation of feet upward, head downward), "palestinian suspension" (forearms bound together behind the back with the elbows flexed 90 degrees and the forearms tied to a horizontal bar or beam, or suspending from a ligature tied around the elbows or wrists with the arms behind the back)

Dispelling Myths About Torture

In order to understand torture and its practice, it is important to dispel certain myths about its nature and purpose.^{Note 6}

MYTH: Torture is practiced by "less civilized" societies

REALITY: There is no solace in the misconception that "others", that is, people different than ourselves practice torture. Modern torture has occurred on every continent and employed within regimes of both the left and the right.

MYTH: Torture is used primarily to obtain information or signed confessions.

REALITY: Obtaining information and confessions is not the primary purpose of torture. Signing such confessions seldom leads to relief or release. Torture is directed towards instilling and reinforcing a sense of powerlessness and terror in victims and the societies in which they live. It is a process which generates a situation designed to destroy the physical and psychological capabilities of survivors to function as viable individuals.

MYTH: Torture is meant to destroy the body

REALITY: Torture is not intended to kill the body, but the soul. Doctors and medical personnel often participate during torture sessions so as to ensure that the victim will live long enough for the strategy to be effective.

MYTH: Torture is practiced randomly

REALITY: Rarely, if ever, is torture practiced randomly. Rather torture is used as part of a continuum of repressive measures and suppression of rights or as part of state policy in order to deter real or suspected dissidents.

MYTH: Torture is punishment carried to an extreme

REALITY: While torture may be utilized for a variety of purposes (for example, to punish, to obtain information, or to coerce a third party), a primary reason for its use is as a means of social control.

MYTH: Torture exists outside of governmental responsibility

REALITY: The state is often involved in torture, either directly or indirectly. Such involvement provides adequate authorisation and even a measure of justification for the torture.

MYTH: Torture is performed by psychopaths or sadists

REALITY: While there is no doubt that there are torturers who are drawn to the trade because they are sadists, most perpetrators are not. They are part of a larger apparatus of terror that can act to shield them from the consequences of their actions.

Compounding the problem of misperceptions about torture is a "wall of sustained disbelief" that prevents full comprehension of the enormity of torture. Most people simply try to avoid the topic entirely.^{Note 7}

THE EFFECTS OF TORTURE

"In ten years of conflict 56,000 young Americans were to die in the jungles, river deltas and rice paddies of Southeast Asia. Between 60,000 and 100,000 were subsequently to take their own lives. The conflict in Vietnam was the first war in recorded history whose combat deaths were later to be exceeded by the suicide of its veterans."^{Note 8}

As the above statement reminds us, exposure to extreme trauma can have a devastating effect on a person. Given the extreme nature of the torture experience, it should not be difficult to understand how exposure to torture is likely to have a significant impact on the survivor and on that person's conduct at the Board. All victims of torture suffer some physical and/or psychological effects of the torture. It is believed that survivors of torture never fully recover from the experience.
The word "broken" is often used by victims to describe how torture has affected them. Victims of torture will always see the experience of torture as a reference point. Life will be described as "before" or "after I was tortured". The individual's biography will be perceived as broken at that very point. Statements such as "I am no longer what I used to be" or "I can't seem to find myself any longer" are commonly heard, even years after torture took place.^{Note 9}
Some victims of torture will experience profound emotional reactions and psychological symptoms. The main psychiatric disorders associated with torture are post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, adjustment disorder, and anxiety disorders. However, while everyone who is tortured is affected by the experience, it is important to recognise that not everyone who has been tortured develops a diagnosable mental illness. Consequently, Members and RPOs should not draw a negative inference from the fact that a person alleging torture does not have PTSD.
Following is an overview of some of the physical and psychological effects of torture.

Physical and Psychological Effects of Torture

Physical effects of torture may include:

musculoskeletal aches and pains
numbing and weakness
neurological damage (numbing, weakness, motor function, strength or coordination)
headaches
fractures to bones
skin damage (lesions, contusions, bruises, lacerations, burns, sharp trauma wounds)
head trauma
damage to internal organs
gynaecological problems
vision and hearing loss

Psychological effects of torture may include:

re-experiencing the trauma (flashback and intrusive memories)
psychic numbing (showing no or inappropriate emotion)
detachment and social withdrawal
impaired memory/loss of concentration/confusion
anxiety and depression
panic disorder/panic attacks
sleep disturbances and nightmares
somatic complaints (e.g. pains, headaches, stomach aches, nervousness, fainting, sweating, fatigue, weakness, loss of appetite or weight gain)
fear (especially fear of authority)/phobias
mistrust/suspiciousness/paranoia
feelings of helplessness
feelings of hopelessness/despair
feelings of isolation/alienation/disorientation
damaged self concept (feelings of shame, humiliation, worthlessness, loss of confidence)
rage/outbursts of anger/aggressive behaviour/irritability
dissociation/detachment and depersonalization
hyperarousal,
hypersensitivity
thoughts of death or suicide

Effects of Torture on Social Functioning:^{Note 10}

deterioration of the family structure, impaired ability to interact as a family member, impaired parenting skills
deterioration of community ties
impaired ability to hold a job and support oneself and one's family.

Factors that May Compound Effects of Torture:^{Note 11}

overwhelming grief or bereavement due to separation from and/or loss of loved ones
overwhelming sense of guilt (survivor guilt, blaming themselves for their torture or for the torture of others)
"culture shock":adjustments problems arising out of resettlement to a new country
uncertainty over status in Canada

DSM-IV Criteria for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

309.81 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

A. The person has been exposed to a traumatic event in which both of the following have been present:

the person experienced, witnessed, or was confronted with an event or events that involved actual or threatened death or serious injury, or a threat to the physical integrity of self or others
the person's response involved intense fear, helplessness, or horror. Note:In children, this may be expressed instead by disorganized or agitated behaviour.

B. The traumatic event is persistently reexperienced in one or more of the following ways:

recurrent and intrusive distressing recollections of the event, including images, thoughts, or perceptions. Note: In young children, repetitive play may occur in which themes or aspects of the trauma are expressed.
recurrent distressing dreams of the event. Note:In children, there may be frightening dreams without recognizable content.
acting or feeling as if the traumatic event were recurring includes a sense of reliving the experience, illusions, hallucinations, and dissociative flashback episodes, including those that occur upon awakening or when intoxicated). Note: In young children, trauma-specific reenactment may occur.
intense psychological distress at exposure to internal or external cues that symbolize or resemble an aspect of the traumatic event.
physiological reactivity on exposure to internal or external cues that symbolize or resemble an aspect of the traumatic event.

C. Persistent avoidance of stimuli associated with the trauma and numbing of general responsiveness (not present before the trauma), as indicated by three or more of the following:

efforts to avoid thoughts, feelings, or conversations associated with the trauma
efforts to avoid activities, places, or people that arouse recollections of the trauma
inability to recall an important aspect of the trauma
markedly diminished interest or participation in significant activities
feeling of detachment or estrangement from others
restricted range of affect (e.g., unable to have loving feelings)
sense of a foreshortened future (e.g., does not expect to have a career, marriage, children, or a normal life span)

D. Persistent symptoms of increased arousal (not present before the trauma), as indicated by two or more of the following:

difficulty falling or staying asleep
irritability or outbursts of anger
difficulty concentrating
hypervigilance
exaggerated startle response

E. Duration of the disturbance (symptoms in Criteria B, C, and D) is more than one month.
F. The disturbance causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.
Specifiers (for the onset and duration of symptoms):
Acute: This specifier should be used when the duration of the symptoms is less than 3 months.
Chronic: This specifier should be used when the symptoms last three months or longer.
With Delayed Onset: This specifier indicates that at least 6 months have passed between the traumatic event and the onset of symptoms.
Associated Features and Disorders
Individuals with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder may describe painful guilt feelings about surviving when others did not survive or about the things they had to do to survive. Phobic avoidance of situations or activities that resemble or symbolize the original trauma may interfere with interpersonal relationships and lead to marital conflict, divorce, or loss of job.
The following associated constellation of symptoms may occur and are more commonly seen in association with an interpersonal stressor (e.g., childhood sexual or physical abuse), domestic battering, being taken hostage, incarceration as a prisoner of war or in a concentration camp, torture):impaired affect modulation; self-destructive and impulsive behavior; dissociative symptoms; somatic complaints; feelings of ineffectiveness, shame, despair, or hopelessness; feeling permanently damaged; a loss of previously sustained beliefs; hostility; social withdrawal; feeling constantly threatened; impaired relationships with others; or a change from the individual's previous personality characteristics. There may be increased risk of Panic Disorder, Agoraphobia, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, Social Phobia, Specific Phobia, Major Depressive Disorder, Somatization Disorder, and Substance-Related Disorders. It is not known to what extent these disorders precede or follow the onset of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder.
Specific Culture and Age Features
Individuals who have recently emigrated from areas of considerable social unrest and civil conflict may have elevated rates of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Such individuals may be especially reluctant to divulge experiences of torture and trauma due to their vulnerable political immigrant status. Specific assessments of traumatic experiences and concomitant symptoms are needed for such individuals.
In younger children, distressing dreams of the event may, within several weeks, change into generalized nightmares of monsters, of rescuing others, or of threats to self or others. Young children usually do not have the sense that they are reliving the past; rather, the reliving of the trauma may occur through repetitive play (e.g., a child who was involved in a serious automobile accident repeatedly reenacts car crashes with toy cars). Because it may be difficult for children to report diminished interest in significant activities and constriction of affect, these symptoms should be carefully evaluated with reports from parents, teachers, and other observers. In children, the sense of a foreshortened future may be evidenced by the belief that life will be too short to include becoming an adult. There may also be "omen formation" - that is, belief in an ability to foresee future untoward events. Children may also exhibit various physical symptoms such as stomach aches and headaches.
Prevalence
Studies of at-risk individuals (e.g., combat veterans, victims of volcanic eruptions or criminal violence) have yielded prevalence rates ranging from 3% to 58%.
Individuals who have recently emigrated for areas of considerable social unrest and civil conflict may have elevated rates of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Such individuals may be especially reluctant to divulge experiences of torture and trauma due to their vulnerable political status. Specific assessments of traumatic experiences are needed for such individuals.
Course
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder can occur at any age, including childhood. Symptoms usually begin within the first three months after the trauma, although there may be a delay of months, or even years, before symptoms appear. Frequently the disturbance initially meets criteria for Acute Stress Disorder (see p. 429) in the immediate aftermath of the trauma. The symptoms of the disorder and the relative predominance of reexperiencing, avoidance, and hyperarousal symptoms may vary over time. Duration of the symptoms varies, with complete recovery occurring within three months in approximately half of cases, with many others having persisting symptoms for longer than 12 months after the trauma.
The severity, duration, and proximity of an individual's exposure to the traumatic event are the most important factors affecting the likelihood of developing this disorder. There is some evidence that social supports, family history, childhood experiences, personality variables, and preexisting mental disorders may influence the development of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. This disorder can develop in individuals without any predisposing conditions, particularly if the stressor is especially extreme.
Differential Diagnosis
In Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, the stressor must be of extreme (i.e., life-threatening) nature. In contrast, in Adjustment Disorder, the stressor can be of any severity. The diagnosis of Adjustment Disorder is appropriate both for situations in which the stressor does not meet the criteria for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (or another specific mental disorder) and for situations in which the symptom pattern of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder occurs in response to a stressor that is not extreme (e.g., spouse leaving, being fired).
Not all psychopathology that occurs in individuals exposed to an extreme stressor should necessarily be attributed to Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Symptoms of avoidance, numbing, and increased arousal that are present before exposure to the stressor do not meet criteria for the diagnosis of Posttraumatic Stress
Disorder and require consideration of other diagnoses (e.g., a Mood Disorder or another Anxiety Disorder). Moreover, if the symptom response to pattern to the extreme stressor meets criteria for another mental disorder (e.g., Brief Psychotic Disorder, Conversion Disorder, Major Depressive Disorder), these diagnoses should be given instead of, or in addition to, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Acute Stress Disorder is distinguished from Posttraumatic Stress Disorder because the symptom pattern in Acute Stress Disorder must occur within 4 weeks of the traumatic event and resolve within that 4-week period. If the symptoms persist for more than 1-months and meet criteria for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, the diagnosis is changed from Acute Stress Disorder to Posttraumatic Stress Disorder.
Malingering should be ruled out in those situations in which financial remuneration, benefit eligibility, and forensic determinations play a role.

Working with Survivors^{Note 12}

As I walked into the waiting room, I remember being struck by his appearance. Although he was almost exactly my age, I saw an old, tired-looking, white-haired man, his face deeply lined and drawn. I wondered what I had to offer this survivor of torture. Would I be able to help him recover from such a dreadful trauma? How could anyone come to terms with an experience which seemed to threaten some of the most basic human needs?
This was the first of many referrals from my colleagues at the Medical Foundation. I learned a great deal from him. For example, I got to know the real meaning of words which I had only ever come across in books and journal articles. I knew that falaka was a term applied to a form of torture in which the soles of the feet are beaten with a cane. I had to be told about the pain this causes, not just the first time as the soles of the feet are reduced to bleeding open wounds, but on each subsequent occasion as the scars (by now probably infected) are opened again and again. Even years later, it is often unbearably painful to walk more than a few hundred yards.
More than this, I learned that the worst aspect of his experience was not the personal suffering, but being forced to witness the torture and the deaths of others. Sham executions were often combined with genuine killings. After facing a firing squad, he would sometimes be the only one they did not kill. And the deaths were usually not accomplished so cleanly. In the dark crowded cells, people would be returned from torture only to die several hours later, without any possibility of relief in their final agonies.
In some ways this man is lucky. He is one of the survivors of torture. He had escaped from his own country and had been granted political asylum. He is relatively safe from further attack. Yet his life could never again be the same. He knew that he had been betrayed by a member of his family, someone to whom he had been particularly close. He would never again be able to trust or to live as freely as before. He would carry the chains of his torture to his death.

VICTIMS OF TORTURE IN THE HEARING ROOM

Ability to Testify

A refugee hearing, which can be stressful for any claimant, will be even more so for a victim of torture, even if he or she is not questioned directly on the torture experience itself.

It is almost certain that the experience of torture will have a negative impact on the claimant's ability to testify, regardless of whether the claimant is suffering from a psychological disorder. When you combine this with the fact that our hearings are the type of environment that will be uncomfortable for a victim of torture, it is clear that special measures need to be taken when questioning victims of torture. In order to understand these special measures, it is first necessary to have a better understanding of the difficulties a victim of torture may face in a refugee hearing.
It is very common for a victim of torture to feel stressed, vulnerable, powerless, and, even fearful in the setting of a refugee hearing. A victim of torture will probably be reluctant to talk about their experience of torture and other traumatic events. He or she may even be reluctant to talk about non-traumatic matters. It is also very common for a victim of torture to have difficulties with memory and concentration, and to behave emotionally in an unpredictable manner, even when the torture took place years earlier. This should not be surprising, given the extreme nature of the act of torture.
However, while virtually all victims of torture will find the hearing to be quite stressful, and virtually all will have some difficulty testifying, it is very important to understand that there is no "typical" way a victim of torture will behave in the hearing room:

"While there are consequences, there is not (and cannot be) a 'typical" profile of a torture survivor. Too many modifying and diverse elements factor into the equation for a viable profile to be constructed. Culture, belief systems, age, gender, social and family support (or lack thereof), and individual personality, all combine to influence the recovery process."^{Note 13}

Thus, it is important that Members and RPOs not have any expectations about how a victim of torture should behave in the hearing room.

No Obvious Signs

Even if you cannot tell that a claimant is currently experiencing problems, the symptoms of torture can still have an impact on the claimant's ability to testify at the hearing. In most cases there will not be any obvious signs that the claimant is having difficulty testifying. Indeed, the claimant will not usually tell you that she is experiencing a flashback, nor will it always be obvious to an observer. Moreover, the claimant is unlikely, for example, to tell you that he is trying to avoid answering questions that might
touch upon the experience of torture. All of the these difficulties are most likely to be internally manifested. This makes it all the more critical that Members and RPOs:

Are aware of the various ways in which the experience of torture can have an impact on the claimant's ability to testify;
Take steps to minimize the impact; and
Are cautious in making any assumptions about credibility.

Following is a discussion of the primary ways in which the experience of torture can have an impact on the claimant's ability to testify.

Key Characteristics

FOUR KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF VICTIMS OF TORTURE IN THE HEARING ROOM

DENIAL/AVOIDANCE: A victim may avoid discussing events - using avoidance as a coping mechanism.
DIFFICULTY: A victim may have difficulty remembering events (or details of those events) and/or concentrating on the hearing and questions being asked.
FEAR/MISTRUST: A victim may have an intense fear and mistrust of persons in authority as well as settings that remind him or her of the torture experience.
UNPREDICTABILITY: A victim of torture may respond in emotionally unpredictable ways.

Denial/Avoidance

There are powerful disincentives to testifying about torture and other similar traumatic experiences. A person who has undergone a major traumatic experience may be very reluctant to re-live the emotions by relating events from which he or she has suffered. Being questioned during the hearing can trigger deep emotions and may exacerbate trauma-related symptoms. Denying or avoiding discussion of the torture is a common coping mechanism for a victim of torture and may or may not be conscious. Some victims of torture will also avoid discussing events because they fear not being believed. Indeed, some torture is so horrific it is almost beyond belief. Others may feel humiliated talking about their experiences - especially through an interpreter, and in front of strangers who often do not share the claimant's social and cultural background. Still others may believe that talking about their experiences might dishonour their family or community.

Difficulties Testifying

In addition to disincentives to testifying, it is quite common for victims of torture to have difficulty in relating their story, due to problems with memory, concentration and/or stress and anxiety. During their testimony, they may falter, appear confused, be unresponsive, retreat into prolonged silence, or provide explanations that lack coherence and seem contradictory. It is not unusual for a torture victim to break down and become incapable of coherent expression. These problems are intensified with increased anxiety.
The impact of torture on memory is discussed in more detail below.

Fear/Mistrust

Victims of torture may be reluctant to testify because they mistrust or are afraid of the Member, RPO, or interpreter, who they perceive as persons in position of power and authority. Distrust is a common consequence of the torture experience. It is also a common survival technique - the claimant may have found it necessary to distrust everyone in order to make his or her escape.
As well, the enclosed hearing room and long periods of questioning could remind the victim of torture of the torture experience and make him or her feel fearful. Victims of torture may also be afraid of disclosing information that could place themselves or their family at risk. Thus, they may be afraid of what people in the hearing room will do with the information he or she provides.
This fear and mistrust may be manifested in a number of ways, including signs of emotional distress, avoiding eye contact with Members and RPOs, or avoiding answering questions.

Unpredictability

A victim of torture may behave in an emotionally unpredictable manner. He or she may lose composure, show inappropriate emotion, or be unresponsive. Some claimants will feel comfortable with a first-person, emotion-laden account. Others may be emotionally reserved, or show flat affect or may relate the incident in the third person. Some claimants may smile or laugh at what seem to you to be inappropriate times.
Members and RPOs need to be aware that their questioning may trigger an emotional response or the opposite could happen -- the claimant could appear emotionless. It is impossible to predict. As well, Members and RPOS need to be careful not to assume the claimant was not tortured if the claimant talks about the traumatic events with a lack of affect.

QUESTIONING VICTIMS OF TORTURE

Because the job of the Board is to conduct oral hearings and make well-reasoned decisions, victims of torture will most likely need to be questioned at the hearing, and, if considered necessary, have their credibility tested.
Obviously, we need to be very careful when dealing with victims of torture not to draw erroneous conclusions about their credibility.
How best to question a victim a torture? Questioning needs to be specially adapted when dealing with victims of torture (1) in order to try to avoid re-traumatising a victim of torture, and (2) because using standard questioning techniques with a victim of torture may simply be less effective in eliciting testimony that is complete and reliable.
This module sets out an approach to questioning that applies whenever there is an allegation of torture. Because any story of torture could be true, the member and RPO should approach all claims in the same manner.

Not Always Necessary to Question on the Torture Incident

As a basic principle, unless there are significant credibility concerns, it will not be necessary to ask for details about the torture incident itself. In most cases, the claim can be examined through questioning on other areas of the claim or by questioning around rather than about the torture incident. However, even when the questioning is not on the torture incident itself, we must still adapt our questioning style to take into account the difficulty the victims of torture may have in testifying on other aspects of the claim. As discussed in the previous section, a victim of torture may be reluctant to testify about non-traumatic events and may feel stressed and fearful in the hearing room setting.

A Balancing Act

Just because it can be difficult to question a victim of torture this does not mean that the claim should not be thoroughly examined. Legitimate problems of credibility may still arise in claims involving torture, just as in other refugee claims. Moreover, some claimants make false allegations of torture and we need to be able to conduct an effective examination into the claim. However, we do not know at the start of the hearing whether the claim is genuine or not, and when presented with a claimant who is having difficulty testifying, we do not know whether the difficulty is due to the effects of torture or because the claimant is not being truthful. We are then faced with a balancing act: we need to probe the claim but also need to take steps to avoid re-traumatising the legitimate claimant. This balancing act is a necessary condition of our work.

Overcoming Your Inhibitions

If you find yourself having to ask the claimant about the torture, you will need to try to overcome any inhibitions your may have about questioning victims of torture and hearing about the abuse they have suffered. Hearing stories of torture and asking questions about it can be very distressing and uncomfortable. You may feel very uncomfortable asking questions about the very personal matters involved in physical, psychological and sexual abuse. The important thing to remember is that it is a valid part of your job to ask these questions and that as a professional you are expected to be able to overcome your inhibitions so that you are able to conduct an effective examination of a victim of torture.

The Basic Approach

As a starting point, consider the following observation of a psychiatrist who deals with victims of torture on a regular basis:

While certain information may need to be obtained, doing so in a way which is intrusive or insensitive generally leads to less trust and less information.^{Note 14}

Adapting our style of questioning when dealing with victims of torture serves two main purposes:(1) it elicits more information and (2) reduces the risk of re-traumatizing the claimant.
There are five basic considerations:

Have the Right Attitude
Put the Claimant at Ease
Explain the Reason for Your Questions about Torture
Use Recommended Techniques to Elicit Testimony
Deal Effectively with Extreme Situations

1 - Have the Right Attitude

Show respect for the claimant in your tone, language and attitude
Treat the claimant as a "whole person" not a "victim"
Treat the claimant with humanity
Remember that there is no particular way in which victims of torture should be expected to behave in the hearing room
Remember that a story of torture may sound unbelievable but be true
Remember that problems with testifying do not mean the story is false - we would expect the legitimate victim of torture to have difficulties testifying
Remember that you are not the claimant's therapist - you may acknowledge the claimant's pain and distress, but maintain your professional boundary

2 - Put The Claimant At Ease

Remember that a victim of torture probably (and with good reason) has a fear of persons with power and authority. The danger is that this will interfere with the communication process. A refugee hearing can be extremely intimidating, especially to a victim of torture. The risk can be reduced by putting the claimant at ease. Here are some ways to put the claimant at ease:

Before the Hearing

If you know beforehand that the claimant may be a victim of torture, there are a number of steps you can take to ensure the physical environment is as comfortable, informal and non-intimidating as possible and to reduce other possible barriers to communication. Following are a number of suggestions:

Take steps to avoid creating waiting room anxiety - waiting can remind people of their torture - make sure the hearing will start on time
While in most cases, the hearing will take place in a regular hearing room, in some cases it may be appropriate to hold the hearing in a less formal interview room with the participants sitting around a table. Even if the hearing is held in a regular hearing room, steps can be taken to make the environment better. For example, you can ensure the claimant has a comfortable chair and plenty of water
Make sure the interpreter is aware of the sensitive nature of the claim and that there is sufficient opportunity for the claimant to become comfortable with the interpreter
If an application to change the order of questioning has been made, consider whether there are "exceptional circumstances" for departing from the practice of having the RPO question first^{Note 15}
Depending on the alleged facts and socio-cultural considerations, it may be appropriate to ensure that the Member, RPO and/or interpreter are all a particular gender. Cases in which the claimant suffered torture of a sexual nature are the most likely to raise this concern. You may wish to consult with counsel for the claimant on this matter
In some situations putting the claimant at ease may mean ensuring the interpreter is not from the same ethnic group as the person(s) who tortured the claimant.
If there are other claimants or witnesses expected to be present during the hearing determine whether the claimant is willing to testify in their presence and take appropriate steps as necessary
Consider creating a less formal environment by having the Member and RPO introduce themselves to the claimant before the hearing starts
In certain cases where there is evidence the claimant may have an extremely difficult time in the hearing room, it may be a good idea to hold a pre-hearing conference to discuss how to proceed and how to best elicit testimony

During the Hearing

Establish a good rapport with the claimant at the outset of the hearing to build the claimant's confidence and trust
Never start the hearing by questioning on the torture experience - question on "easy" topics first
Consider, where appropriate, asking the claimant if he or she is taking any medication that may impact on his or her ability to testify
Give the claimant your full attention when you are questioning and make natural eye contact
Be aware of non-verbal communication. Remembering that power issues are central in torture situations and that victims of torture often have gained a keen ability to read nonverbal signs in order to stay alive, will help you be mindful of the potential impact of gestures you make in the hearing room. For example, you should not:stare, look away while questioning, use large, sweeping and forceful gestures, point, tap your fingers, clench your fists, slouch, sigh, or roll your eyes. Such gestures may be taken as accusatory, intimidating, or suggestive of a lack of interest
Take steps to ensure the claimant feels a sense of control. A major issue for victims of torture is loss of control, which was a key part of the torture experience - asking open questions at the beginning of the examination can help give the claimant a feeling of control
Make sure the claimant understands the purpose and nature of the proceedings (especially important if the claimant is unrepresented)
Emphasize the confidentiality of the proceedings
Don't rush the pace of the hearing
Take cues from the claimant about his or her emotional state and adjust your style of communication accordingly - try to match the claimant's tone and volume
Give the claimant ample opportunity to ask questions throughout the hearing Consider asking, "what questions do you have?" instead of asking "do you have any questions?"
Tell the claimant that he or she may request a break as necessary, may interrupt in order to ask for clarification or repetition of a question or may ask to stop the hearing if he or she is having difficulty
Don't be afraid of emotion:if the claimant starts to show a lot of emotion, go with it rather than backing off - strong emotions are a normal consequence of talking about torture
Understand that a claimant may wish to bring a person to the hearing room to provide him or her with emotional support and take appropriate measures to accommodate such persons

3 - Explain The Reason For Your Questions About Torture

If it is necessary to go into detail about the torture, the claimant will be more at ease if the claimant understands why he or she is being asked to talk about the torture experience. It is therefore recommended that you begin your examination on the torture by telling the claimant the reason for your questions and by acknowledging that you are aware that it can be difficult to testify on such matters. For example, you could say:
"We need to know a little more about what happened when you were being questioned. We don't expect you to remember every detail but we would like you to describe what happened to you. We know it is difficult for you to testify about this, but it is important for us to understand what happened to you in order to make a decision."
Then, before you begin questioning, ask the claimant if he or she has any concerns in order to give the claimant the opportunity to voice any concerns, fears or objections to the process. Ask:
"Do you have any concerns before I begin questioning?"

4 - Use Recommended Techniques to Elicit Testimony

The Golden Rule

Let the claimants tell their stories in their own words and at their own pace.

Start with an Open Question

There are two important reasons why it is important to begin questioning with open questions:

Open questions may help a victim of torture feel more in control than closed questions and therefore make it easier for the claimant to testify; and
Open questions will provide the best possible means of assessing the veracity of the claimant's statements. As much as possible, you need to have the story in the claimant's own words, uninterrupted, and at the claimant's own pace.^{Note 16}

Open questions cannot be answered with "yes," "no," or a simple fact. They often begin with "what," "how" or "why." Here are a few sample open questions:

"What happened when you were taken to the interrogation room?"
"How were you treated in prison?"
"Can you please describe a typical day in prison?"

Depending on the amount of information provided by the claimant in response to the first open questions, you can decide whether to ask another open question, such as:

"What happened next?"
"Please describe the cell/room/ etc."
"Please tell us more about that"
"Is there anything else you would like to add?"

Once the claimant has provided the basic information in response to these open questions, you can back up and, if necessary, ask closed questions to elicit further details or clarify areas of the testimony.
A good technique in questioning a claimant about a torture experience is to employ the T-funnel approach. That is, to begin with open questions and then follow-up with closed questions, gradually narrowing the scope of the inquiry, and eliciting more pertinent details.
Having in-depth knowledge of conditions in the claimant's country will assist you in formulating questions that are relevant and accurate, and will help you avoid asking unnecessary questions or confusing the claimant.

Testing Credibility

Refer to "False Allegations of Torture" below for guidance on questioning when the credibility of the torture story is in issue.

Maximizing the Reliability of the Testimony^{Note 17}

Let the claimant tell the story in his or her own words: using open questions will help to achieve this
Check the claimant's understanding of your questions and the proceedings, as necessary
Avoid leading questions (for example, do not ask, "were you tortured?" but rather "what happened when you were in custody?"
Try re-phrasing your questions to see if this resolves inconsistencies

Techniques to Avoid

As is the case with all claimants, the following "interrogation" styles of questioning should be avoided when questioning victims of torture:

Rapid questions
Rushing the claimant
Confrontational style
Repeating questions
Strings of closed questions
Changes in attitude, approach, demeanour
Loud or aggressive voice, gesturing
Interrupting or cutting off
Expressing disbelief
Attempts to catch or trip up the claimant

Use Minimal Encouragements

Using "minimal encouragements" is a gentle way to persuade the claimant to continue and to convey that you are following the claimant's testimony. Using "minimal encouragements" can help in situations where the claimant is struggling with his or her testimony or where you would like to direct the flow of the testimony. The minimal encouragements technique uses forms of verbal prompting such as "and then," "go on" "umm humm," and "right" or the repetition of a few key words from the claimant's previous response. For example:

Claimant: The warden came into the cell again that evening. I was afraid to even turn around when I heard him enter. (pause)
RPO: Please continue...
Claimant: I knew what was coming. I heard screaming from the next cell the hour before and knew the warden had been in there questioning that inmate. (pause)
RPO: Go on….

Dealing with Silence

The general rule is: do not break silences too quickly. Sometimes, an interested and expectant silence from the questioner may encourage a claimant to talk more freely. Breaking a silence too quickly may deprive the claimant of the opportunity to respond effectively. When you encounter silence, don't assume that the claimant is buying time to make up a false answer. Especially in the case of victims of torture, it is more likely that he or she simply needs time to get control of his or her emotions, or collect his or her thoughts. Silences are more likely to occur following a general or open question than a direct or closed question. Avoid the tendency to interrupt the silence with a more specific question. While this second question may produce a quick response, you will be depriving the claimant of the opportunity to reveal the importance he or she attaches to the issues that will emerge in his or her response to the first question.

Acknowledge the Difficulty

After the claimant finishes testifying about the torture experience, it is recommended that you acknowledge that the claimant has had a difficult time testifying. For example, you could say the following:

"I know that was difficult, but it's good that you told me. Do you have anything else to tell me about this"?

Additional Points

In some cases you may not be able to complete your questioning within the usual time frames.
A victim of torture may not have told his or her counsel, or anyone else, about the torture, or its details, before the hearing. The refugee hearing may thus be the first time a person ever speaks about his or her experience, resulting in a greater potential for trauma.
Victims of torture appearing before the Board unrepresented present special difficulties and will require special care to minimise the potential for traumatising the claimant.

5 - Deal Effectively With Extreme Situations

If after trying the techniques described above the claimant remains extremely upset or reluctant to testify, or seems to have severe memory or concentration problems, you can try the following:

Shift the focus of the questioning to a non-threatening subject until the claimant regains composure
If the claimant dissociates, speak softly and slowly bring them back to reality
Offer verbal assurances
Take a recess
Hold a mid-hearing conference to decide how to proceed. In some situations, you may need to adjourn the hearing for a medical or psychiatric evaluation - and, depending on the results, it may appropriate to consider alternatives to oral testimony, such as a sworn statement or video-taped evidence or, where the person is considered "unable to appreciate the nature of the proceedings" to designate a representative for that person^{Note 18} Before deciding to take any special measures, the Member will need to take into account any costs that may be involved.
Remember that, generally speaking, even claimants who are extremely upset will usually prefer to continue the hearing rather than re-schedule to another day
Consider whether there is enough evidence to make a decision, obviating the need for further testimony from the claimant.

Trauma, Memory and False Allegations

Our assumptions and beliefs about memory can be a key element in assessing the credibility of alleged victims of torture. While some claims are legitimately rejected on the basis that the claimants cannot provide sufficient details about their torture experiences, or omitted important details in earlier statements, there is also a risk that genuine victims of torture may be rejected when decision-makers draw wrong conclusions about their memory difficulties. What then should our expectations be in terms of a victim of torture's ability to remember? This section provides an overview of how memory works, how trauma can affect memory, and some tools for distinguishing genuine memories from fabricated ones.

Basic Features of Ordinary Memory

As defined by Schactel (1947):

Memory as a function of the living personality can be understood as a capacity for the organization and reconstruction of past experiences and impressions in the service of present needs, fears, and interests.

Explicit memory^{Note 19} is considered to be "an active and constructive process."^{Note 20} Memory does not record an accurate copy of the event, but rather an interpretation of the event. Memory tends to be a mixture of real events somewhat accurately recalled and "what the person intuits, hears or infers must have happened."^{Note 21} It may also be distorted by post event information, and the context and emotional state at the time of recall.
According to this "reconstructive model" of memory, there are three stages of acquisition (1) encoding, (2) retention and (3) retrieval, and there are "threats to the integrity of memory" at all three of these stages.^{Note 22} For example, a person may not be able to pay attention to everything that is happening, or may encode the information but may forget some of it over time, or may have encoded and retained the memory but later have trouble retrieving the information.
There are four major sets of circumstances under which memory tends to be inaccurate:^{Note 23}

Poor environmental conditions at time of event (e.g. low lighting)
Sub optimal observer states at time of event (e.g. high stress, perceived or directly inflicted violence, diverted attention)
Memory-distorting problems during the retention interval (e.g. lengthy interval, inaccurate post-event information)
Errors introduced at the time of retrieval (e.g. leading questions)

Clearly, we need to be mindful of these opportunities for memory distortion when questioning alleged victims of torture and assessing the accuracy of their memory. We need to ask questions that draw out evidence related to the conditions described above in order to get as complete picture as possible.
There are other important characteristics of ordinary memory that need to be taken into account when questioning a person about apparent memory problems and assessing the results. These characteristics include:^{Note 24}

Over time, memory tends to deteriorate and become less accurate, details tend to be lost, and become generalized, sometimes merging with similar memories
If little personal significance and meaning is attached to information, recall will be less easy
Memory for dates and times is "notoriously unreliable"
People remember more details about personal autobiographical memories over repeated recall sessions, even when they thought they could not recall any further (called "hypermensia" or the "reminiscence" effect)
Memory varies significantly from one retelling to the next (facts not the same and new detail added)
Memories (especially more recent ones) are largely reconstructed on recall, rather than being reproduced

It is clear that there is significant variability in autobiographical memory - even ordinary, non-traumatic memories are not necessarily accurately encoded, retained or retrieved, and often change with each retelling.

Trauma and Memory

While ordinary, non-traumatic memory is highly variable, it is clear that errors in the encoding, retention and retrieval of memories can be compounded in the case of trauma.
"If the reliability of memory is on shaky ground to begin with, it is not surprising that trauma can influence both the completeness and accuracy of the memories with which it is associated."^{Note 25}
Memory is "especially vulnerable to failure when associated with highly emotionally arousing events - especially the "attentional and perceptual processes."^{Note 26} For example, under conditions of high arousal, people experience a significant narrowing of consciousness, and remain focussed on the central perceptual details, at the expense of the peripheral details.^{Note 27} Some information will be never encoded, or, if encoded, will not be stored.
Traumatic memories appear to be qualitatively different than memories of ordinary events - emotional and perceptual elements tend to be more prominent than declarative (explicit) components. Van der Kolk & Fisler^{Note 28} assert that it is the very nature of traumatic memory to be dissociated,^{Note 29} and to be initially stored as sensory fragments without a coherent semantic component. It consists of images, sensations, affective and behavioural states that are invariable, do not change over time, are state-dependent, and cannot be evoked at will.
It is recognized that trauma can lead to "extremes of retention and forgetting" the experiences may be remembered with extreme vividness, or totally resist integration, or a combination of both.^{Note 30}
Thus, there may be amnesia for some or all of the traumatic event. Such amnesias, with later return of memories for all or part of the trauma, have been widely noted in the literature on trauma victims.^{Note 31} It may last for hours, weeks, or years, until recall is triggered by exposure to sensory or affective stimuli that match sensory or affective elements associated with the trauma. At that point, the person can begin to construct a narrative of the event. However, in some cases, problems relating to dissociation can cause continuing memory problems. For example, some trauma survivors may only be able to access to their implicit memory of the event and will not be able to provide a narrative account.^{Note 32}
At the other end of the spectrum are intrusive memories of the trauma. The initial remembering of a traumatic event is believed to consist of intrusive flashback experiences. Even when a person has been able to construct a narrative of the events there is a tendency to still experience these intrusive flashback sensations. Intrusive memories are one of the key characteristics of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder.
While PTSD is the disorder we most often encounter when dealing with victims of torture at the Board, it is also important to recognise that there are other factors that can have a negative effect on memory functioning such as sleep disorder, anxiety, depression, chronic pain, malnutrition, or severe weight loss^{Note 33}. Thus, even where the victim of torture does not have a medical report with a diagnosed illness, we should not overlook these other possible reasons for impaired memory function.

Summary

Because of the variable nature of memory and the impact of trauma on memory processing, the presence of credibility problems such as inconsistencies and omissions should not necessarily indicate that the memory is not a genuine reconstruction from autobiographical memory.^{Note 34}

False Allegations of Torture

What is the best approach to take when it is suspected that the claimant is not a genuine victim of torture? This section discusses the importance of getting a "true version" of the alleged events, how to distinguish real memories from fabricated ones, and various methods of questioning to draw out the right kind of evidence for assessment.

Getting the True Version

It is believed that the best way to uncover false allegations is to have the "true version" of the claimant's statement to examine.^{Note 35} The true version is the statement of the alleged incident made by the claimant in his or her own words and without interruption. If you have a true version of the claimant's statement you will be able to have more confidence in drawing conclusions about the veracity of the claimant's story. Why is this so? A true version will allow the legitimate claimant to demonstrate the credibility of the story - to impress you with his or her credibility. The "feel" of a true story is more likely to come through if the claimant is given freedom in telling his or her story. Conversely, a true version is more likely to expose a false allegation than eliciting the testimony through other means, because it will better enable you to analyze whether the story is being told through real memory. With a false story, the claimant will have memorized details and will be simply recalling them in response to questions. However, a true story will be described using the senses and displaying other characteristics associated with a real memory.

Real Versus Fabricated Memories

It has been found that real memories tend to reflect^{Note 36}:

greater sensory detail (such as colours, size, shape and sound)
greater mention of geographic detail
more mention of cognitive or other internal processing e.g. thoughts, emotions, reactions
fewer verbal hedges (e.g. I think so, I believe, I'm not sure)

It has also been found that real memories tend to be described in a spontaneous manner.^{Note 37} On the other hand, an invented or coached memory would tend to be rigid, have an overly strict chronology. As well, with an invented memory, two different accounts of the event might be very similar, not showing signs of the reminiscence effect (that, with an actually experienced event, recall varies with each telling) expected to occur with a real memory.

Questioning

The basic approach is to make sure the claimant is given a full opportunity to describe the story in his or her own words so that the determination of whether or not the memory appears to be "real" can be properly made. Questioning should be directed at eliciting evidence of the characteristics listed above that are associated with real memories.
A person who actually experienced torture will have "a unique, personal memory of the event"^{Note 38} and in retelling the story will usually describe events referring to one or more of the five senses (sight, hearing, touch, smell, taste) as well as some of the other characteristics listed above. For example, the claimant might say: "I was in a very dark, damp room that smelled like mould… this room was much smaller than the first one I was taken to… I was finding it very difficult to breathe and could hear myself breathing very loudly."
Asking open questions of the alleged victim of torture is the appropriate strategy for eliciting evidence that can be analyzed for these characteristics. Indeed, it would be difficult to determine the presence or absence of these characteristics if the claimant merely responded to a series of closed questions.
Start your inquiry about the torture incident with one or two very general open questions, such as

Can you please tell me what happened to you?
What happened next?

Then, if you are still unsure about the credibility of the torture story, you can continue by asking additional open questions that may draw out answers involving the claimant's senses. For example:

Please describe the room you were in
What do you remember hearing?
How did that make you feel?
How did you respond?
What do you remember thinking about?

Remember that there is often a fine line to tread in questioning an alleged victim of torture - one needs to fully examine the claim but one needs to avoid traumatising the legitimate claimant.
Another technique, which can be used where there appears to be a low risk for re-traumatisation (for example, where the claimant has thus far in the questioning appeared relatively comfortable talking about the torture incident), is to ask the person to imagine that he or she is at the scene - and to describe it through his or her own eyes, using the present tense to re-enact. This will help draw out evidence to analyze in view of the characteristics listed above.
The presence of "visual cues" that tend to support a real allegation of torture, such as changes in expressions, gesture, body language indicating emotional and re-enactment of posture during torture can enhance the credibility of the claimant's statements.^{Note 39} However, Members are cautioned against relying on the claimant's demeanour in drawing negative credibility inferences.
As the testimony unfolds, you may also need to follow-up on inconsistencies and omissions. When doing so, be careful not to confuse the claimant with complicated set ups to your questions. Also, remember to give the claimant ample opportunity to explain. Finally, you should also avoid dwelling on credibility concerns pertaining to peripheral details of the traumatic event because they may not have been properly encoded in the person's memory. Generally speaking, in the case of an alleged victim of torture we should not have inflated expectations in terms of accuracy and consistency of recall. The following advice given to physicians conducting evaluations of torture is also applicable in our context:

If possible, the clinician should ask for further clarification [when inconsistencies arise]. When this is not possible, the clinician should look for other evidence that supports or refutes the story. A network of consistent supporting details can corroborate and clarify the person's story. Although the individual may not be able to provide the details desired by the clinician such as dates, time, frequencies, and exact identities of perpetrators, overall themes of the traumatic events and torture will emerge and stand up over time.^{Note 40} [Emphasis added]

Remember that a false allegation can range from a slightly distorted report of an actual event to a complete fabrication of an event. In some cases, the claimant may be fabricating aspects of the story but nonetheless fulfill the criteria for refugee protection.

MEDICAL/PSYCHIATRIC REPORTS

A medical and/or psychiatric report can have an impact on the hearing in many ways. For example, a report can:

Corroborate the claimant's evidence in support of the claim for refugee protection (assess the degree of consistency between the person's account of torture and the findings made during the evaluation)
Provide an expert opinion about any difficulties the claimant may have in testifying at the hearing or in recalling certain experiences
Reduce or eliminate the need for questioning on the torture incident itself

It would make our jobs much easier if all victims of torture provided a corroborating medical/psychiatric report prepared by a doctor or psychiatrist familiar with the work of the Board, specialised in dealing with victims of torture, and known to the Board as an expert. Thus, in a perfect world, all legitimate claims would be "pre-certified" by these experts. Often, however, the reality is that either the claimant does not come with a report or does produce a report but the report cannot be given much weight or is not particularly helpful. Reports do vary in quality and reliability. Examples of reports which might not be given much weight include those hastily prepared or resulting from an incomplete examination of the claimant, containing insufficient detail regarding the claimant's ability to testify, or written by someone who lacks special education or training in dealing with refugees who are victims of torture.
In addition to problems with the reports of genuine claimants, claimants who are making false allegations of torture are sometimes able to get a medical or psychiatric report. The issue of the "malingering" claimant is dealt with separately below.
Ultimately, the Member has to decide the case, based on all of the evidence before him or her, of which the medical/psychiatric report is merely one piece.
The purpose of a medical/psychiatric report is not to prove or disprove the allegations of torture, in other words, to draw conclusions about whether the torture did in fact take place. Rather, the health professional provides expert opinions on the degree to which his or her findings correlate with the allegations of torture. Such medical evidence can demonstrate that injuries or behaviours presented could have been caused by the torture described. It makes sense not to expect medical professionals to be able to draw definitive conclusions when we consider that^{Note 41}:

Many forms of torture leave little trace, and even fewer leave long-term physical signs
It is possible for injuries or marks to be the product of other causes

Please note that this section provides an overview of issues relating to expert reports. More detailed information can be found in Principles of Law Regarding Expert Witnesses (see Appendix) and Chapter 6, section 6.7 of Legal Services Paper Weighing Evidence (1999).

Contents of a Medical/Psychiatric Report

While the structure and contents of a medical report will vary from case to case, the following is a list of the basic elements:^{Note 42}

Basic Case Information (date of subject's name, date of birth, gender, date of evaluation, duration of evaluation, whether an interpreter was used, who else was present)
Educational and professional qualifications (education, training, experience with victims of torture and in preparing reports)
Background Information on Victim of Torture (age, occupation, education, family, past medical history, psychosocial history)
Allegations of Torture and Ill Treatment (summary of allegations reported by claimant)
Physical Examination
Psychological History/Examination
Photographs
Diagnostic Test Results
Interpretation of Findings
Conclusions and Recommendations (statement of opinion on the consistency between all sources of evidence citied above and allegations of torture. Reiterate symptoms and/or disabilities that the individual continues to suffer as a result of the alleged abuse. Provide any recommendations for further evaluation and/or care)
Signature
Relevant Appendices (curriculum vitae, anatomical drawings, test results, etc.)

Please Note: It is preferable if the medical professional does not repeat portions of the PIF in the report or present information provided by the claimant at the examination as if it were true. The medical professional should be careful to state only that the claimant "stated" or "reported" that X occurred and should only include such statements when necessary to explain a particular finding.

Assessing the Weight of a Medical/Psychiatric Report

Following are a number of questions to consider when assessing the weight of a medical/psychiatric report:

Is the report recent? If not, could a new one be obtained?
What are the practitioner's credentials, and specific training/experience? Is the content of the report within the practitioner's area of expertise?
Did the practitioner meet with the claimant personally or simply refer to medical records? If the practitioner met with the claimant, how long was the interview? Did it take place in one sitting or over several appointments?
Was malingering considered? If so, what steps were taken to rule it out?
Were differential diagnoses considered and ruled out? Is there any supporting evidence? (e.g. X-ray, psychometric tests) Were any tests administered culturally sensitive?
How definitive is the wording of the report? Did the practitioner examine the claimant?
Was a history of other traumatic events in the individual's life taken?
Is the claimant a client of a recognized organization for victims of torture?
Has the claimant followed up on the diagnosis/suggested treatment?
Is the evidence consistent with the claimant's age, culture, gender, etc.?
Are there any cross-cultural or gender factors that could impact on the reliability of the examination?

It is important to be aware of the difference between therapeutic (treating a patient's symptoms) and forensic (legal) medicine. The objective of forensic medicine is to establish the causes and origins of injuries and is a specialised field.^{Note 43} For obvious reasons, it would be preferable to have the examination of the claimant performed by a medical professional with special training in forensic medicine.
The following legal principles should be considered when weighing expert evidence^{Note 44}:

A Member is not bound to accept and give full weight to an expert report or testimony. It may be weighed in the same manner as any other evidence
However, when the expertise of a witness is not in doubt, the Member should take particular care in explaining why he or she rejects the evidence of the expert, especially if the evidence supports the claimant's position
The greater the expertise, the greater the weight, unless there are other reasons to give the evidence less weight
An expert's opinion is not proof of the truthfulness of the information upon which it is based. Where the member finds the events on which the report was based not to be credible, it may give the expert report no weight
A Member must take into account an expert's report, and if relevant, explain the reasons for rejecting it. Thus, it is an error to fail to refer to a medical/psychiatric report in the Member's reasons

Questioning an Expert Witness

If you or the claimant decides to call the practitioner who prepared the report as an expert witness, there are a number of things you will need to consider.^{Note 45}
What distinguishes an expert witness is that he or she is permitted to express an opinion about the evidence: an expert is "characterized as a person possessed of the special skill and knowledge acquired through study or practical observation that entitles him [or her] to give opinion evidence or speak authoritatively concerning his or her area of expertise."^{Note 46} In a court proceeding, before an expert witness is allowed to testify in court, it must be demonstrated that the witness is qualified to testify by having special or peculiar knowledge of the subject-matter of the testimony. Such expertise can be gained through training or experience. While it is not necessary to formally qualify an expert witness at the RPD, it is good practice to ask the witness for his or her qualifications at the start of questioning. The witness's qualifications are relevant to the weight to be given to his/her evidence. Remember that the suitability of the expert will depend upon the precise topic in issue.

Good preparation is the key to effective questioning of an expert witness

As a starting point, the questions presented above under "Assessing the Weight of a Medical/Psychiatric Report" can be used when questioning an expert in the hearing room.
As well, the use of hypotheticals will be an effective method of questioning an expert witness. Thus, you may ask the expert whether his or her opinion would change if "X" fact was changed or introduced, and in this way, determine the precise scope of the expert's opinion and applicability to the case at hand. You should never attack the expert's credentials or knowledge during questioning of the expert (any questions in this regard would have been relevant when the qualifications were being presented at the outset of the testimony). It would, however, be appropriate to question the physician with respect to the method by which the claimant was diagnosed, the level of certainty involved in the diagnosis, and the precise effect of the disorder on the claimant's ability to testify.

Malingering and PTSD

This section concerns the situation where a claimant may have obtained, under false pretences, a psychological report that corroborates his or her story of torture. Having an understanding of the approach of the psychiatric profession to malingering can assist us at the Board in both detecting when a claimant may be malingering, in analyzing a report submitted on behalf of a claimant, and in questioning the author of such a report.
Malingering is defined in the DSM-IV-TR as:

"the intentional production of false or grossly exaggerated physical or psychological symptoms, motivated by external incentives such as avoiding military duty, avoiding work, obtaining financial compensation, evading criminal prosecution or obtaining drugs" (American Psychiatric Association, 2000).

Malingering is a valid concern in the refugee status determination process because there is an external incentive at stake - a diagnosis from a professional can corroborate the story of torture and contribute to a positive decision. However, it is important to understand at the outset that malingering can be very difficult to both detect and to prove. It has been observed that psychiatrists are at a disadvantage compared to other medical specialists when confronted with the possibility of a malingering patient, since they depend more heavily on the accurate self-report of internal mental states by their patients.^{Note 47} Short of catching the malingerer behaving contrary to their reported symptoms, or where the malingerer confesses to lying, it can be very difficult to confirm that the person is malingering. Nevertheless, there are some methods that have been developed to assist clinicians in the detection and investigation of malingering. Understanding these methods will help us better understand, question and evaluate the psychological reports put in evidence.
While the focus here is on the diagnosis of PTSD, the essential principles can be applied when considering malingering in other psychological diagnoses, such as depression and anxiety disorders.
The description of PTSD contained in the DSM specifically asks practitioners to consider whether malingering is in issue. Likewise, the Physicians for Human Rights Guide states that "it is important to recognize that some people falsely allege torture for a range of reasons and that others may exaggerate a relatively minor experiences in order to make a stronger case for asylum."^{Note 48} The Guide further states, "the clinician must always be aware of these possibilities and try to identify potential reasons for exaggeration or fabrication."
There does seem to be some risk that a claimant could obtain a false diagnosis of PTSD or other psychological illness from a doctor or psychiatrist. There are a number of reasons why a claimant might be able to fool the ordinary professional:

PTSD is considered relatively easy to fake because it is defined almost completely by subjective criteria and lists of symptoms can be easily found^{Note 49}
Detecting this type of lie is very difficult. It has been observed that "psychiatrists' ability to detect lies in strangers is little better than chance" and that their confidence in their ability to detect malingering has no relationship to their actual ability^{Note 50}
Psychiatrists are often reluctant to consider the possibility of malingering, even in obvious situations, as an accusation of lying can damage if not destroy the therapeutic relationship between doctor and patient.^{Note 51} Psychiatrists do not normally want to approach their patients with a sceptical attitude
The professional may rely solely on the claimant's self-reporting rather than any corroborating evidence.^{Note 52} Even where the professional may have adequate knowledge and experience, "reliance on clinical interviews alone will not allow the clinician to diagnose malingering in any but the most obvious cases"^{Note 53}
The professional may not spend enough time with the claimant
The professional may be swayed by the "vividness and emotional impact of a trauma story," although there is in fact no connection between these factors and the truthfulness of the story^{Note 54}
The professional may ask leading questions about symptoms
The professional may not being sufficiently knowledgeable about PTSD and/torture
There may be significant language, cross-cultural and gender barriers to communication

Obviously, the ability to detect malingering would be significantly enhanced in the case of a professional who specializes in PTSD (including malingered PTSD), has experience working with refugees and received training in forensic medicine or psychiatry. Moreover, a person playing the role of an evaluator rather than a treatment provider may be in a better position to assess for malingering. It has been observed that where a clinician plays a dual role of both treatment provider and evaluator it can be more difficult to detect malingering.^{Note 55}

Characteristics of Malingered PTSD

Researchers have identified a number of characteristics that are associated with malingered PTSD:^{Note 56}

The true PTSD sufferer generally downplays symptoms while the malingerer overplays them
Malingerers may report or exhibit bizarre or improbable symptoms
In true PTSD, the person often denies or has numbed the emotional impact of the trauma. In malingered PTSD, the person will make efforts to convince the clinician how emotionally traumatizing the event was
Malingerers may exaggerate the severity of the stressor
Malingerers are also likely to concentrate on reliving the trauma, whereas patients with genuine PTSD focus more on the phenomenon of psychic numbing
Malingerers may claim repetitive dreams that exactly re-create the trauma night after night without variation, whereas with true posttraumatic dreams the typical pattern is a few dreams that re-enact the traumatic event followed by nightmare that are variations on the theme, in which other elements of the patient's daily life are incorporated
In true PTSD posttraumatic dreams are frequently accompanied by body movements and thrashing in bed and the person may awake suddenly in a state of panic. Moreover, there tends to be middle insomnia as opposed to initial insomnia or early awakening
In true PTSD the person may avoid environmental conditions associated with the trauma whereas the malingerer is unlikely to report such reactions to environmental stimuli
Malingerers may give a neat recitation of symptoms that appears to be straight out of the diagnostic manual
Malingerers may be vague about state of mind aspects of PTSD (criterion A - peritraumatic horror, helplessness, and/or dissociation) Malingerers tend to forget negative symptoms of PTSD (detachment from close relationships, avoidance of trauma-related activities) (criterion C)
Malingerers will find it difficult to consistently mimic behavioural cues such as hyperarousal and dissociative "spacing out" (criterion D)
Malingerers may be uncooperative
Malingerers may call attentions to his or her distress but be evasive about details of symptoms
Malingerers may present pre-trauma functioning in an over-idealized light and tend to blame all life problems on the trauma and resultant PTSD

In order to evaluate the genuineness of PTSD, the clinician can:^{Note 57}

Insist on detailed descriptions of the symptoms because while a malingerer may know what to report they may be unable to give a convincing description or examples from their personal life
Look for behavioural cues to PTSD such as staring, startling, and somatic reactions
Ask open questions instead of using check off lists of symptoms
Use multiple sources of data, including interviews, records, collateral sources of information, and psychometric tests.^{Note 58} For example the clinician could interview family members to help clarify inconsistencies, corroborate the person's history and to corroborate behaviours such as the frequency of nighttime awakenings, physical activity during sleep and emotional changes since the trauma
Be careful to ask open-ended questions and to let patients tell their complete story with few interruptions and to carefully phrase inquiries about symptoms to avoid giving clues about the nature of true symptoms
Examine the reasonableness of the relationship between the reported symptoms and the stressor, the time elapsed between the stressor and the development of symptoms, and the relationship between current symptoms and psychiatric problems before the stressor

What to do when malingering is suspected

The first course of action when malingering is suspected should be to question the claimant using the techniques described earlier in this section ("False Allegations of Torture") in order to determine whether or not the claimant can establish that he or she was actually tortured. Other corroborating evidence submitted by the claimant should also be examined. If that finding is not in dispute, it may not ultimately matter if the claimant obtained a false PTSD diagnosis. In other words, the person may have obtained a false report but could still be accepted because the rest of the evidence establishes that there is a valid claim for refugee protection. So first decide if the report is a critical piece of evidence.
If the report is really necessary as corroborative evidence of the torture and the matter isn't resolved through careful questioning of the claimant, then it may be appropriate to call the author of the report as a witness and to question the author in the hearing room. Other approaches, such as arranging to have an independent expert prepare a second report, could be very costly and time-consuming and would need to be discussed with a Coordinating Member.

VICARIOUS TRAUMATIZATION

Vicarious trauma is the experience of bearing witness to the atrocities committed against another. It is the result of absorbing the sight, smell, sound, touch and feel of the stories told in detail by victims searching for a way to release their own pain. It is the instant physical reaction that occurs when a particularly horrific story is told or an event is uncovered. It is the insidious way that the experiences slip under the door, finding ways to permeate the counsellor's life, accumulating in different way, creating changes that are both subtle and pronounced. Vicarious trauma is the energy that comes from being in the presence of trauma and it is how our bodies and psyche react to the profound despair, rage and pain. Personal balance can be lost for a moment or for a long time. The invasive and intrusive horrors infiltrate and make their mark. The waves of agony and pain bombard the spirit and seep in, draining strength, confidence, desire, friendship, calmness, laughter and good health. Confusion, apathy, isolation, anxiety, sadness and illness are often the result.^{Note 59}

Thus far, the Manual has focused on difficulties the victim of torture may have in talking about the torture he or she experienced. We now turn our attention to difficulties the Member or RPO may have in listening to claimants' stories of torture. This chapter provides a brief overview of the phenomenon called vicarious traumatization.^{Note 60}

Definition of Vicarious Traumatization

Vicarious traumatization has been defined by Saakvitne and Pearlman^{Note 61} as:
"the transformation of the therapist's or helper's inner experience as a result of empathetic engagement with victim clients and their trauma material."
What this means in lay terms is that people who work with victims of torture may themselves become traumatized as a result of listening to the stories of trauma. Saakvitne and Pearlman describe vicarious traumatization as an "occupational hazard, an inescapable effect of trauma work…a human consequence of knowing, caring, and facing the reality of trauma."

Applicability to IRB Context

Most of the research and literature on this subject has been based on the experiences of trauma workers such as police, fire fighters emergency workers, and "anti-violence" workers such as persons working with victims of sexual assault, and therapists. While IRB members and RPOs are not trauma workers, therapists, or employed in a caring profession, and certainly do not have the same level of risk of vicarious traumatization, the repeated exposure to the traumatic stories of refugee claimants still puts them at some risk. Vicarious traumatization can have an effect on a Member or RPO's interactions with others, work performance, and can decrease their objectivity, tolerance, patience and ability to listen dispassionately.^{Note 62} The Member or RPO might react with disbelief or sarcasm to stories of torture. Among the suggestions listed below for preventing and dealing with vicarious traumatization, the importance of communicating -- talking about one's feelings and experiences needs to be highlighted. It is recommended that Members and RPOs "debrief" with a colleague, close friend, or family member after a hearing involving torture.
Note that vicarious traumatization can also affect family members and other people closely associated with a victim of torture. This may need to be taken into account when dealing with a family member or close associate of a victim of torture in the hearing room.^{Note 63}

Contributing Factors

The specific impact of vicarious traumatization will be determined by the unique interaction between the situation and the person. Saakvitne and Pearlman identify the following factors:

The Situation

Nature of the work
Nature of the clientele (type and number of clients and their traumas)
Cumulative exposure to trauma material
Organizational context
Social and cultural context

The Individual

Personal history
Personality and defensive style
Coping style
Current life context
Training and professional identity and history
Supervision
Personal therapy

Further, they point out that the empathy - a deep emotional engagement with the victim of trauma - can make a person particularly vulnerable to traumatic stress.^{Note 64}

Signs and Symptoms

According to Saakvitne and Pearlman, the basic signs and symptoms of vicarious traumatization are:

General changes

No time or energy for oneself
Disconnection from loved ones
Social withdrawal
Increased sensitivity to violence
Cynicism
Generalised despair and hopelessness
Nightmares

Specific changes

Disrupted frame of reference
Changes in identity, world view, spirituality
Diminished self capacities
Impaired ego resources
Disrupted psychological needs and cognitive schemas
Alternations in sensory experiences (intrusive imagery, dissociation, depersonalization)

Note that vicarious traumatization may be combined with other stress and burnout. There are very serious consequences of unmanaged stress, particularly when combined with the harmful effects of vicarious trauma.

Preventing and Addressing Vicarious Traumatization

Self-awareness, self-assessment and self-care are the three critical components to preventing a toxic, unhealthy build-up of the negative and invasive effects of dealing with victims of torture.^{Note 65}
According to Saakvitne and Pearlman, antidotes to vicarious traumatization must address two fundamental aspects of vicarious traumatization:

better self-care to address the stress inherent in vicarious traumatization; and
transformation of negative beliefs, despair and loss of meaning to address the demoralization and loss of hope created by vicarious traumatization.

Strategies for Dealing with Vicarious Traumtization

Saakvitne and Pearlman suggest the following strategies for dealing with vicarious traumatization:

Professional

Supervision/consultation
Scheduling; client load and distribution
Balance and variety of tasks
Education
Work space

Organizational

Collegial support
Forums to address VT
Supervision availability
Resources (mental health benefits, space, time)

Personal

Making personal life a priority
Personal therapy
Leisure activities (physical, creative, spontaneous, relaxation)
Spiritual well-being
Self-Nurturing (emotional, physical, spiritual, interpersonal, creative, artistic)
Attention to health

There are three central aspects of all vicarious traumatization interventions, referred to as the "ABCs of vicarious traumatization, which need to addressed in the 3 'realms'- professional, organizational and personal:"

ABCs of Vicarious Traumatization

Awareness - being attuned to one's needs, limits, emotions and resources.
Balance - maintaining balance among activities, especially work, play and rest.
Connection - connections to oneself, to others and to something larger. These connections offset isolation and increase validation and hope. Communication breaks the silence of unacknowledged pain.
In all 3 Realms- professional, organizational, and personal

APPENDIX

PRINCIPLES OF LAW REGARDING EXPERT WITNESSES

Definition of an expert.
An expert witness is a person possessed of a special skill and knowledge acquired through study or experience that entitles him to give opinion evidence concerning his or her area of expertise. [Emphasis added]

Rice v. Sockett
(1912), 8 D.L.R. 84 (H.C.)
The purpose of expert evidence.
With respect to matters calling for special knowledge, an expert in the field may draw inferences and state his opinion. An expert's function is precisely this: to provide the judge and jury with a ready-made inference which the judge and jury, due to the technical nature of the facts, are unable to formulate. [...]
An expert witness, like any other witness, may testify as to the veracity of facts of which he has first-hand experience, but this is not the main purpose of his or her testimony.

R. v. Abbey
[1982] 2 S.C.R. 24, at 42

It is my understanding that there are at least two aspects to expert evidence; (1) the adducing of facts through an expert because that individual has a particular knowledge thereof and such evidence can only realistically be obtained in this manner; (2) the drawing of inferences from a defined set of facts in circumstances where the making of such inferences are difficult for a trier of fact because they depend on specialized knowledge, skill or experience.

Fraser River Pile & Dredge Ltd.v. Empire Tug Boats Ltd.
(F.C.T.D., no. T-1631-93), Reed, March 20, 1995
Admissibility of expert evidence in courts.
Admissibility of expert evidence depends on the application of the following criteria (a) relevance; (b) necessity in assisting the trier of fact; (c) the absence of any exclusionary rule; and (d) a properly qualified expert.

R. v. Mohan
[1994] 2 S.C.R. 9 (headnote)

The general rule is that expert evidence is admissible to furnish the court with scientific information which is likely to be outside the experience and knowledge of the judge and jury [...]

R. v. Burns
[1994] 1 S.C.R. 656, at 666
Admissibility of evidence (including expert evidence) at the RPD.Section 170 of the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act provides that the Refugee Protection Division, in any proceedings before it,

(g) is not bound by any legal or technical rules of evidence;

(h) may receive and base a decision on evidence that is adduced in the proceedings and considered credible or trustworthy in the circumstances;

Application in a case:

Despite the hearsay frailties [information provided by unidentified Somalian informants] of professor Samatar's evidence ... the tribunal was entitled to find this evidence credible and trustworthy, and to base its decision upon it .... the tribunal gave reasons to prefer Professor Samatar's evidence to that of the [claimant], as it is required to do. The tribunal was entitled to admit this evidence and to give it the weight that it did.

Siad v. Canada (Secretary of State)(C.A.)
[1997] 1 F.C. 608 at 620
Disclosure requirements. RPD Rule 38 provides that:
(1) If a party wants to call a witness, the party must provide in writing to any other party and the Division the following witness information:
1. (a) The witness's contact information;
2. (b) The purpose and substance of the witness's testimony or, in the case of an expert witness, the expert witness's signed summary of the testimony to be given;
3. (c) The time needed for the witness's testimony;
4. (d) The party's relationship to the witness;
5. (e) In the case of an expert witness, a description of the expert witness's qualifications; and
6. (f) Whether the party wants the witness to testify by videoconference or telephone.
(2) The witness information must be provided to the Division together with a written statement of how and when it was provided to any other party.
(3) A document provided under this rule must be received by its recipient no later than 20 days before the hearing.
(4) If a party does not provide the witness information as required under this rule, the witness may not testify at the hearing unless the Division allows the witness to testify.
The purpose of disclosure is to allow for better preparation of the case and to avoid surprises and possible delays at the hearing. The Rule is procedural and in no way displaces the discretion of the Refugee Protection Division to admit and weigh the evidence as it sees fit in the circumstances of the case.
Qualifying an expert and assessment of the evidence.
Mewett, Alan W., in Witnesses (Carswell, 1991) explains that there are two aspects to qualifying experts; (1) the field of expertise, and (2) the individual qualifications of the proffered expert.

(1) "... the subject-matter on which the witness is offering his or her opinion must be one recognized as an area of expertise, that is to say, one requiring special study or experience for the drawing of scientifically acceptable conclusions." (at 10-8)

(2) "Qualification as an expert may come from formal training or experience or, most often, a combination of both." (at 10-16)

Excerpt from the Legal Services paper Weighing Evidence:

Before the courts, opinion evidence is generally not permitted. The exception to this rule is opinion evidence from an expert, who must be qualified as such before being permitted to testify. However, none of the three Divisions of the IRB is bound by the Rules of Evidence, and experts need not formally be qualified as such in order to give opinion evidence. […] The qualifications of the witness will have bearing on the weight to be given to the evidence. For this reason, it is still important to establish the domain of the asserted expertise, and to compare the qualifications offered with the domain asserted.

Macaulay, Robert, in Practice and Procedure Before Administrative Tribunals (Carswell, 1997) indicates that:

"Very few tribunals require an expert to be qualified and then cross-examined on his qualifications before hearing his evidence. The common practice is to file a c.v. as an exhibit, after which counsel usually highlights the expert's experience followed by the witness' examination. In cross-examination, those opposed in interest may attempt to attack the qualification. On the whole, the attack is a waste of time. What is far more effective is to attack the quality of the evidence directly rather than the qualifications of the donor." (at 17-6)

McLachlin J. puts it thus:

The only requirement for the admissibility of expert opinion is that the "expert witness possesses special knowledge and experience going beyond that of the trier of fact" ... Deficiencies in the expertise go to weight, not admissibility.

R. v. Marquard
[1993] 4. S.C.R. 223, at 243

Macaulay also says that "[t]he failure to qualify an expert will not normally cause the evidence to be inadmissible; it will, however, reduce it persuasiveness in the minds of the members of the tribunal." (at 17-7) This view, however, should be read cautiously in light of the general proposition accepted by courts that expert evidence is to be assessed like any other evidence.

[...] As a tribunal specializing in the assessment of refugee status claims, the [Refugee] Division must decide the merits of applications before it. Expert testimony can be very useful in certain areas; however, it is a piece of evidence like any other, and it is up to the Division to decide how much weight it should [be] given. [emphasis added]

Bula, Ngaliema Zena v.S.S.C.
(F.C.T.D., no. A-794-92), Noël, June 16, 1994, at 2

Experts [...] have no divine immunity from being disbelieved as a result of a negative assessment of their credibility. [..] no tribunal needs to stand in awe of any expert, because, in law, tribunals are free to accept or to reject any expert's evidence as seems reasonable to the tribunal, without committing a reviewable error.

Bains, Iqbal Singh v.M.C.I.
(F.C.T.D., no. IMM-2055-94), Muldoon, August 24, 1995, at 13

The trial judge was entirely correct in advising the jury that they were not bound by the expert psychiatric testimony and that its probative value was to be assessed in the same manner as any other testimony.

R. v. Ratti
[1991] 1 S.C.R. 68, at 81

The acceptance of a witness as qualified to give expert evidence does not operate to suspend the Court's evaluation of that evidence.

Eli Lilly and Co.v. Novopharm Ltd.
(F.C.T.D., no. T-2432-95, T-2433-95, T-2434-95), Reed, April 25, 1997

According to Mewett, in Witnesses:

"When a jury is considering whether or not to accept the opinion of an expert, it must, as part of that process, consider what weight it will give the opinion. This is particularly true when there are conflicting experts and the jury must choose between them or neither of them, but it is also no less true even when there is only one expert since the jury, even in that case, is not bound to follow the expert's opinion." (At 10-18.3)

As for the parties, this is what he has to say:

"Although in some cases counsel may have no choice, attacking competence on the ground of lack of sufficient expertise (as apposed to attacking competence on the ground that the area is not one of admissible scientific expertise) is not always the best tactic to adopt when there is the alternative of accepting the expert as a witness and subsequently seeking to attack the weight to be given to that testimony." (At 10-30)
Factors to consider in weighing the evidence of an expert witness
Excerpt from the Legal Services paper Weighing Evidence (footnotes omitted):
- whether an expert would be of assistance regarding the issue to be decided. Counsel should be asked to clarify the purpose of the expert testimony. Before refusing to hear the testimony, the decision-maker must be certain that the evidence would be of no assistance. It may be preferable to hear the testimony and weigh it appropriately later
- whether the testimony is within the expert's area of expertise
- the manner in which the expertise was acquired, i.e. by education and/or experience
- whether the expert's opinion was formed with full knowledge of the relevant facts
- the facts and assumptions relied on by the expert
- whether the facts relied on by the expert have been established
- quality of textbooks and other source material relied on by the expert
- whether the methods relied on to form the opinion were reliable. e.g. Nature of tests applied, and whether they were culturally sensitive
- whether the expert has relied on hearsay in forming an opinion and how reliable that hearsay information is
- whether the hearsay information relied on by the expert is of the nature generally relied on by experts in the field
- whether there is evidence that other respected experts in the field hold a different opinion on the subject
- any biases or radical views held by the expert
- expert's relationship to the claimant, appellant, or person concerned
- whether a medical expert has examined the claimant personally, or simply referred to medical records.
According to Mewett, in Witnesses:

"Part of this weighing will depend upon the credentials of the expert — qualifications, experience, reputation and so on. Part will depend upon the jury's view of the thouroughness of the expert's examination or diagnosis or whatever is involved, his or her opportunity to observe the facts properly and, generally, what the jury perceives to be the degree of care taken." (At 10-18.3)
Expert opinion on a witness's credibility cannot replace the credibility assessment of the trier of fact.
A judge or jury who simply accepts an expert's opinion on the credibility of a witness would be abandoning its duty to itself determine the credibility of the witness. Credibility must always be the product of the judge or jury's view of the diverse ingredients it has perceived at trial, combined with experience, logic and an intuitive sense of the matter [...].

R. v. Marquard
[1993] 4 S.C.R. 223, at 248
An expert's opinion is not proof of the truthfulness of the information upon which it is based.
[...] While it is not questioned that medical experts are entitled to take into consideration all possible information in forming their opinions, this in no way removes from the party tendering such evidence the obligation of establishing, through properly admissible evidence, the factual basis on which such opinions are based. Before any weight can be given to an expert's opinion, the facts upon which the opinion is based must be found to exist.

R. v. Abbey
[1982] 2 S.C.R. 24, at 46

In this case, the use of the medical testimony is dependent upon the facts giving rise to the medical opinions. Where, as in this case, the Board did not find the applicant to be credible, the medical evidence did not persuade the Board that the scars which were present on the applicant necessarily stemmed from persecution in Ghana. If the applicant was found to be credible then the treatment of the medical opinions would of necessity be different. In the latter situation, the medical opinions might assist the Tribunal in clearing up any uncertainties associated with the applicant's testimony. It is not necessary for the Board to speculate as to the origin of the scars but rather it must determine whether the scars and bumps found on the body of the applicant resulted from persecution in Ghana.

Boateng, Nicholas v.M.C.I.
(F.C.T.D., no. A-1027-92), Wetston, March 31, 1995, at 1-2

[..] With respect to the assessment of the doctor's evidence, to find that that opinion evidence is only as valid as the truth of the facts on which it is based, is always a valid way of evaluating opinion evidence.

Danailoff, Vasco (Vassil) Vladimirov Danailov v.M.E.I.
(F.C.T.D., no. T-273-93), Reed, October 6, 1993, at 1-2

When such reports are nothing more than a recitation of the applicant's story, which the Board does not believe, and a conclusion based on symptoms, which the applicant has told the psychiatrist are being experienced, then, Boards cannot be faulted for treating such reports with some degree of scepticism. When they are based on independent and objective testing by a psychiatrist, then, they deserve more consideration.

Gosal Pardeep Singh v.M.C.I.
(F.C.T.D., no. IMM-2316-97), Reed, March 11, 1998, at 5.

The tribunal attributed little weight to the psychologist report in general, principally because it did not believe the information the applicant shared with the expert. […] The tribunal's obligation was to receive and consider the psychologist report. The tribunal received evidence from the applicant over three days. It is not because the psychologist did not discredit the applicant's allegations concerning "marital rape", as described in the report, that the tribunal itself could not do so. The tribunal's treatment of the psychologist's report was consistent with its appreciation of the applicant's credibility. The decision by the tribunal to afford "little value" to the psychologist's report is not a reviewable error.

Wati Phul v.M.C.I.
(F.C.T.D., no. IMM-3932-98), Lutfy, April 16, 1999, at 4-5.
Expert testimony on human behaviour may be useful in assessing a witness's credibility.
[...] there is a growing consensus that while expert evidence on the ultimate credibility of a witness is not admissible, expert evidence on human conduct and the psychological and physical factors which may lead to certain behaviour relevant to credibility, is admissible, provided the testimony goes beyond the ordinary experience of the trier of fact. Professor A. Mewett describes the permissible use of this sort of evidence as "putting the witness's testimony in its proper context." He states in the editorial "Credibility and Consistency" (1991), 33 Crim. L.Q. 385, at p. 386:
The relevance of his testimony is to assist - no more - the jury in determining whether there is an explanation for what might otherwise be regarded as conduct that is inconsistent with that of a truthful witness. It does, of course, bolster the credibility of that witness, but it is evidence of how certain people react to certain experiences.
[...] To accept this approach is not to open the floodgates to expert testimony on whether witnesses are lying or telling the truth. It is rather to recognize that certain aspects of human behaviour which are important to the judge or jury's assessment of credibility may not be understood by the lay person and hence require elucidation by experts in human behaviour.

R. v. Marquard
[1993] 4 S.C.R. 223, at 249-250
If relevant, the Refugee Protection Division is required to consider the fact that the expert not only based his or her opinion on what the claimant has told him or her, but also on what he or she has observed as an expert.
[...] the CRDD states that Dr. Payne based his conclusion, his psychiatric opinion "... on what he was told by the male claimant."
[...] the CRDD ignored the fact that Dr. Payne based his diagnosis, not simply on what he was told by the male applicant, but also on his trained, professional observation of the male applicant. [...]
I conclude that the CRDD erred in its cavalier dismissal of the professional opinion of Dr. Payne.

Zapata, Carlos Alberto Ruiz v. and M.E.I.
(F.C.T.D., no. IMM-4876-93), Gibson, June 29, 1994, at 5-7
An expert's report cannot be rejected for the sole reason that it could not specify that torture is the only cause of the claimant's injuries.
With respect to the evidence contained in the medical report submitted by Dr. William Chan relating to injuries sustained by the claimant as a result of torture, the tribunal erred in considering and rejecting it. The tribunal's suggestion that the report needed to indicate that torture was the only possible cause of the injuries places an impossible burden on the refugee claimants.

Thurairajah, Uthayasankar v.M.E.I.
(F.C.T.D., no. IMM-2339-93), Tremblay-Lamer, March 11, 1994, at 5
The Refugee Protection Division is not required to accept the opinion of an expert witness regarding the well-foundedness of a claim.
While the Refugee Division accepted the statements of Margaret Atwood and Michael Ondaatje that it was not out of the ordinary for a poet to be unable to recite her work, it accorded no weight to their statements [that] the applicant would be persecuted in Sri Lanka because of her poems. That was a decision entirely within the tribunal's discretion. There are a number of factors which must be considered in the determination of a Convention refugee claim and it is the function of the Refugee Division to assess the likelihood of persecution based on all the evidence before it. It is not incumbent on the tribunal to accept the opinions of third parties concerning the ultimate issue which it has to determine.

Gnanapragasm, Monica v.M.E.I.
(F.C.T.D., no. IMM-3317-93), Jerome, September 14, 1994, at 4

[...] As a tribunal specializing in the assessment of refugee status claims, the [Refugee] Division must decide the merits of applications before it.

Bula, Ngaliema Zena v.S.S.C.
(F.C.T.D., no. A-794-92), Noël, June 16, 1994, at 2
Dealing with expert evidence in the reasons.
The Refugee Protection Division must take into account an expert's report and, if relevant, justify the reasons for rejecting it.

[...] Convention Refugee Determination Division decisions have been sent back because they failed to make reference to medical evidence supporting a claim. [...]
In my opinion, in completely ignoring the medical evidence before it, the Board committed an error [...]

Miayuku, Lubanzadio v.M.C.I.
(F.C.T.D., no. IMM-4813-93), Pinard, July 18, 1994, at 2

[...] although three pieces of documentary evidence directly specific to the applicant were introduced, namely, a doctor's certificate, [...] the Refugee Division made no mention of these documents in their decision. Once again, I am concerned that no mention of this documentation is made in the reasons. [...] The Refugee Division, in my view, is obligated, at the very least, to comment on the information. If the documentation is accepted or rejected the applicant should be advised of the reasons why, especially as the documentation supports the applicant's position.

Bains, Iqbal Singh v.M.E.I.
(F.C.T.D., no. 92-A-6905), Cullen, May 26, 1993, at 5

[...] The Tribunal appears to completely ignore evidence before it in the form of written psychiatric report that indicates the Applicant suffers from Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Depression with the result that "...he gets very forgetful, loses his train of thoughts, concentration and becomes very afraid, especially when the past is discussed." The Applicant is entitled to an assurance that such evidence was taken into account in the credibility finding against him that apparently was based on the evasiveness and confusion in his testimony.

Sanghera, Bhajan Singh v.M.E.I.
(F.C.T.D., no. T-194-93), Gibson, January 26, 1994, at 3-4

Obviously, it was open to the Board to disregard the medical report. However, having regard to the importance which it placed on the applicant's demeanour in reaching its decision, it had the obligation to indicate why it chose to do so.
[...] the Board never explicitly rejects her allegations of gang-rape, nor does it reject Dr. Speigel's opinion at least insofar as it is framed by reference to this occurrence.
It is [...] apparent that the Board did not reject the medical opinion of Dr. Speigel because it did not believe the underlying facts on which it was based. Why then was it rejected? The Board had to confront this evidence and explain why it was to be discarded. It never did.

Sivayoganathan, Maria Rajeswary v.M.C.I.
(F.C.T.D., no. IMM-4979-93), Noël, November 7, 1994, at 7-9

Notes

Note 1: Joan Simalchik, "The Politics of Torture: Dispelling the Myths and Understanding the Survivor " excerpted from "Community Support for Survivors of Torture: A Manual" pp. 9-13, edited by Kathy Price. Published by the Canadian Centre for Victims of Torture, Toronto, Ontario, 1995.

Return to note 1 referrer
Note 2: Ibid.

Return to note 2 referrer
Note 3: The following description has been adapted from: Elena O. Nightingale, "The Problem of Torture and the Response of the Health Professional", Health Services for the Treatment of Torture and Trauma Survivors, J. Gruschow & K. Hannibal, eds., (Washington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1990), p. 8-9 (cited in US Asylum Officer Basic Training Course, Interviewing Part V: Interviewing Survivors (February 1998).

Return to note 3 referrer
Note 4: Istanbul Protocol: Manual on the Effective Investigation and Documentation of Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, U.N. High Commissioner for Human Rights (1999) p. 43.

Return to note 4 referrer
Note 5: The Canadian Immigration and Refugee Protection Act (IRPA) adopts this definition of torture.

Return to note 5 referrer
Note 6: This section was adapted from Joan Simalchik's article, "The Politics of Torture: Dispelling the Myths and Understanding the Survivors", supra, note 1.

Return to note 6 referrer
Note 7: Ibid.

Return to note 7 referrer
Note 8: Baigent and Leigh (1998), cited in Health Canada, Guidebook on Vicarious Trauma: Recommended Solutions for Anti-Violence Workers (2001) (Prepared by Jan I. Richardson).

Return to note 8 referrer
Note 9: Dr. Paul Berdichevsky, "The Continuing Ordeal: Long Term Needs of Survivors of Torture".

Return to note 9 referrer
Note 10: US Asylum Officer Basic Training Course, Interviewing Part V: Interviewing Survivors (February 1998).

Return to note 10 referrer
Note 11: Ibid.

Return to note 11 referrer
Note 12: Stuart Turner, "Working with Survivors" (1989) Psychiatric Bulletin, 13:173-176.

Return to note 12 referrer
Note 13: Joan Simalchik, supra, note 1.

Return to note 13 referrer
Note 14: Dr. Donald Payne, "Relating to Survivors of Torture in Bureaucratic Settings: Developing Sensitivity in Office Procedures" (www.ccvt.org).

Return to note 14 referrer
Note 15: IRB Chairperson's Guidelines Concerning Preparation and Conduct of Hearing in the Refugee Protection Division (2003).

Return to note 15 referrer
Note 16: See the discussion below for information about false allegations of torture.

Return to note 16 referrer
Note 17: Camille Giffard, The Torture Reporting Handbook

Return to note 17 referrer
Note 18: IRPA s. 167(2).

Return to note 18 referrer
Note 19: Explicit memory is memory which is verbally accessible. Implicit memory is memory without awareness.

Return to note 19 referrer
Note 20: Bessel A. van der Kolk & Rita Fisler, " Dissociation and the Fragmentary Nature of Traumatic memories: Overview and Exploratory Study" (1995).

Return to note 20 referrer
Note 21: Goodman, et al. 1999) cited in Mitchell K. Byrne, "Trauma Reactions in the Offender" International Journal of Forensic Psychology May 2003, Vol. 1, No. 1 pp. 59-70.

Return to note 21 referrer
Note 22: Byrne, supra, note 21.

Return to note 22 referrer
Note 23: Geoffrey R. Loftus, Ph.D. " Declaration in the case of Javier Suarez Medina"

Return to note 23 referrer
Note 24: Dr. Juliet Cohen, "Errors of Recall and Credibility: Can Omissions and Discrepancies in Successive Statements Reasonably be Said to Undermine Credibility of Testimony?" (2001) The Medico-Legal Society.

Return to note 24 referrer
Note 25: Byrne, supra, note 21.

Return to note 25 referrer
Note 26: Ibid.

Return to note 26 referrer
Note 27: Christianson and Loftus (1991) cited in Byrne, supra, note 21.

Return to note 27 referrer
Note 28: van der Kolk & Fisler, supra, note 20.

Return to note 28 referrer
Note 29: A disruption in the usually integrated functions of consciousness, memory, identity or perception of the environment - DSM-IV.

Return to note 29 referrer
Note 30: van der Kolk & Fisler, supra, note 20.

Return to note 30 referrer
Note 31: Ibid.

Return to note 31 referrer
Note 32: Ibid.

Return to note 32 referrer
Note 33: Cohen, supra, note 24.

Return to note 33 referrer
Note 34: Cohen, supra, note 24.

Return to note 34 referrer
Note 35: Adapted from a presentation to the IRB by Detective Wendy Leaver, Toronto Police Department.

Return to note 35 referrer
Note 36: Gudjonnsen (1992) and Schooler, Gerhard and Loftus (1986) cited in Cohen, supra, note 24. (note that this list is based on comparisons of real and suggested memories).

Return to note 36 referrer
Note 37: John C. Yuille, Ph.D.Fact Finding and the Judiciary: Second Part (1996).

Return to note 37 referrer
Note 38: Detective Leaver, supra note 35.

Return to note 38 referrer
Note 39: Dr. Juliet Cohen, supra, note 24.

Return to note 39 referrer
Note 40: Physicians for Human Rights, Examining Asylum Seekers: A Health Professional's Guide to Medical and Psychological Evaluations of Torture (2001) p. 31.

Return to note 40 referrer
Note 41: Camille Giffard, supra, note 17.

Return to note 41 referrer
Note 42: This section was adapted from Chapter 6 of Examining Asylum Seekers, supra, note 40.

Return to note 42 referrer
Note 43: Camille Giffard, supra, note 17.

Return to note 43 referrer
Note 44: This section was adapted from the Legal Services paper: Principles of Law Regarding Expert Witnesse (see Appendix) and Chapter 6, section 6.7 of Legal Services paper Weighing Evidence (1999).

Return to note 44 referrer
Note 45: For information about the procedural requirements in calling an expert witness, please refer to Legal Services paper Principles of Law Regarding Expert Witnesses (see Appendix).

Return to note 45 referrer
Note 46: Stobo, G. Expert Evidence, Legal Services, (1989) p. 3 cited in Principles of Law Regarding Expert Witnesses (see Appendix).

Return to note 46 referrer
Note 47: Michael R. Harris M.D. and Phillip J. Resnick, M.D. "Suspected Malingering: Guidelines for Clinicians" Psychiatric Times, December 2003, Vol. XX, Issue 13.

Return to note 47 referrer
Note 48: Examining Asylum Seekers, supra, note 40.

Return to note 48 referrer
Note 49: Harris and Resnick, supra, note 47.

Return to note 49 referrer
Note 50: Ekman (1985) as cited in Harris and Resnick, supra, note 47.

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Note 51: Harris and Resnick, supra, note 47.

Return to note 51 referrer
Note 52: In one study the use of leading questions or symptom checklists allowed malingerers unfamiliar with psychiatric disorders to qualify for diagnoses of major depression and posttraumatic stress disorder (Lees-Haley and Dunn, 1994), cited in Harris and Resnick, supra, note 47.

Return to note 52 referrer
Note 53: Harris and Resnick, supra, note 47.

Return to note 53 referrer
Note 54: Judith G. Armstrong, Ph.D. & James R. High, M.D. "Guidelines for Differentiating Malingering from PTSD." NC-PTSD Clinical Quarterly, Vol. 8(3) (1999).

Return to note 54 referrer
Note 55: Ibid.

Return to note 55 referrer
Note 56: This is not intended to be a complete list of the characteristics of malingered PTSD. The list was compiled from two sources: Harris and Resnick, supra, note 47, and Armstrong & High, supra, note 54.

Return to note 56 referrer
Note 57: List compiled from Harris and Resnick, supra, note 47, and Armstrong & High, supra, note 54.

Return to note 57 referrer
Note 58: Resnick (1997) as cited in Harris and Resnick, supra, note 47. The importance of using multiple sources of data when evaluating malingering is well recognised in the field, and is a key factor to consider when we are evaluating reports. However, regarding tests, it must be understood that there really are no reliable, valid objective measures or tests of malingering, especially in the cross-cultural context of refugee claims.

Return to note 58 referrer
Note 59: Health Canada, Guidebook on Vicarious Trauma, supra, note 8.

Return to note 59 referrer
Note 60: This Manual uses the term "vicarious traumatization." Other terms for the same phenomenon include: secondary traumatization, secondary stress disorder, and compassion fatigue.

Return to note 60 referrer
Note 61: K. Saakvitne, L. Pearlman, Transforming the Pain: A Workbook on Vicarious Traumatization (1996) (W.W. Norton & Company).

Return to note 61 referrer
Note 62: US Asylum Officer Basic Training Course, supra, note 10.

Return to note 62 referrer
Note 63: Ibid.

Return to note 63 referrer
Note 64: A number of self-assessment tools are included in the Saakvitne and Pearlman Workbook to identify vulnerability to, and evidence of, vicarious traumatization.

Return to note 64 referrer
Note 65: Health Canada, Guidebook on Vicarious Trauma, supra, note 8.
http://www.irb-cisr.gc.ca/Eng/RefClaDem/Pages/GuideTorture.aspx

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[PDF]

Cultures at Work: Intercultural Communication in the Canadian ...

www.muttart.org/sites/default/files/Fantino_A_Cultures%20at%20Work.pdf - Similar

any non-commercial purpose, provided that credit is given to the author and to .....
rates, resulting in a growing reliance on immigration as a source of skills, ... who
landed in Canada during the 1990s, and who were in the labour force in 2001,
..... may push the immigrant back to thinking that his/efforts to understand the new
.

What is Culture?

According to the

Oxford English Dictionary

culture is “the way of life of a

particular society or group.” Culture includes material and ideal objects such

as tools, machines, techniques, institutions, languages, ideas, beliefs, taboos,

works of art, rituals, ceremonies, and other related components.

Culture, in this

sense, includes all human achievements of a group of people (e.g., Greek culture;

Egyptian culture).

The continuity and development of cultures is secured through the transmission

of knowledge and artifacts from generation to generation. However, since cultures

are both conservative and creative, they tend both to perpetuate themselves and

to develop and grow in a constant dialectical movement between permanency

and change.

A culture grows and reproduces itself just as it is made and re-made in every

individual. Each person will process cultural models in different ways according

to personal internal characteristics and dynamics.

According to Roger M. Keesing, “Culture is not all of what individuals know

and think and feel about their world. It is their theory of what their fellows know,

believe, and mean, their theory of the code being followed, the game being

played, in the society into which they were born.... It is this theory to which a

native actor refers in interpreting the unfamiliar or the ambiguous, in interacting

with strangers (or super naturals), and in other settings peripheral to the

familiarity of mundane everyday life space; and with which he [or she] creates

the stage on which the games of life are played....”

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Canada- Language, Culture, Customs and Etiquette

Facts and Statistics

Location: Northern North America, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean on the east, North Pacific Ocean on the west, and the Arctic Ocean on the north, north of the conterminous US

Capital: Ottawa

Climate: varies from temperate in south to subarctic and arctic in north

Population: 33,212,696 (July 2008 est.)

Ethnic Make-up: British Isles origin 28%, French origin 23%, other European 15%, Amerindian 2%, other, mostly Asian, African, Arab 6%, mixed background 26%

Religions: Roman Catholic 42.6%, Protestant 23.3% (including United Church 9.5%, Anglican 6.8%, Baptist 2.4%, Lutheran 2%), other Christian 4.4%, Muslim 1.9%, other and unspecified 11.8%, none 16% (2001 census)

Government: constitutional monarchy that is also a parliamentary democracy and a federation

Language in Canada

A multitude of languages are spoken in Canada. According to the 2006 census, English and French are the preferred language ("home language", or language spoken most often in the home) of 67.1% and 21.5% of the population, respectively. English and French are recognised by the Constitution of Canada as "official languages," which means that all laws of the federal government are enacted in both English and French and that federal government services are required to be available in both languages.
The five most widely-spoken non-official languages are Chinese (the home language of 2.6% of Canadians), Punjabi (0.8%), Spanish (0.7%), Italian (0.6%), and Arabic (0.5%).

Canadian Society and Culture

Cultural Diversity

Canada is culturally diverse. This goes back to the 1890s when it began inviting people from all over the world to settle in the country to help it develop and grow. Canadian immigration policy was historically open, welcoming and egalitarian in its philosophy. This has also manifest into the psyche of the nation where people are encouraged and to retain their cultural identities, traditions, languages and customs.

Individuals concerned with the group

Canadians are generally a tolerant, polite and extremely community-oriented people. Although they are individualistic in terms of their basic cultural traits, they nevertheless place a great deal of emphasis on the individual's responsibility to the community. This is seen as giving balance and a good quality of life.

Regionalism

Most Canadians have a strong allegiance to their province or region, sometimes more so than to the country. There are some broad differences between regions, which can generally be summed up as follows:

Atlantic Provinces (Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland): The people are somewhat reserved and provincial, to the point that they are seen as old-fashioned.
Ontario: This is the business hub and the people tend to be business-like and conservative.
Western Canada (Alberta, Manitoba and Saskatchewan): The people are open, friendly and relaxed.
British Colombia: The people are less conventional. This province is often viewed as the Canada of the future.
Quebec: The French region, has a distinct cultural identity. The people are extremely regionalistic/independent.
North: The people have a strong pioneer spirit.

Customs and Etiquette in Canada

Meeting and Greeting

The most common greeting is the handshake.
It should be firm and accompanied by direct eye contact and a sincere smile.
Wait until invited before using someone's first name although Canadians tend to move to a first-name basis rapidly.
French Canadian friends may greet each other by lightly kissing on the cheeks (once on the left cheek and once on the right).
If using French in Quebec always use the formal pronoun "vous" (you) when speaking to someone and do not switch to the informal "tu" unless invited to do so.

Gift Giving

In general, Canadians give gifts for birthdays and Christmas.
If invited to someone's home for dinner, take a box of good chocolates, flowers or a bottle of wine.
In Quebec, sending flowers in advance of the dinner party is proper protocol.
In Quebec, if you give wine, make sure it is of the highest quality you can afford.
Do not give white lilies as they are used at funerals.
Do not give cash or money as a present.
Gifts are usually opened when received.

Dining Etiquette

Table manners are relatively relaxed and informal in Canada.
Quebec does see a little more formality.
Table manners are generally Continental, i.e. the fork is held in the left hand and the knife in the right while eating.
Wait to be shown to your seat.
Do not begin eating until the hostess starts.
Do not rest your elbows on the table.
Feel free to refuse individual foods or drink without offering an explanation.
Leaving a small amount at the end of the meal is generally acceptable.
In formal situations, the host gives the first toast. An honoured guest should return the toast later in the meal. Women may give toasts.

Business Etiquette and Protocol

Meeting and Greeting

Canadian businesspeople often begin relationships in a reserved manner; once people get to know one another is becomes friendly and informal.
Canadians appreciate politeness and expect others to adhere to the proper protocol for any given situation.
Shake hands with everyone at the meeting upon arrival and departure.
Maintain eye contact while shaking hands.
Men may offer their hand to a woman without waiting for her to extend hers first.
Honorific titles and surnames are usually not used.
However, academic titles are important in Quebec and are used with the honorific Monsieur or Madame.
Business cards are exchanged after the initial introduction.
In Quebec, have one side of your business card translated into French. Hand the card so the French side faces the recipient.
Examine any card you receive before putting it in your card case.

Canadian Communication Styles

It is difficult to specify any national trait in terms of communication in Canada due to its regionalism and cultural diversity. However, there are some basic communication styles that are fairly standard across the country. For example, businesspeople are generally polite, easy-going and somewhat informal.
In general, communication is” moderately indirect” perhaps reflecting an amalgamation of both North American and British tendencies. Although most Canadians can disagree openly when necessary, they prefer to do so with tact and diplomacy. Their communication style is essentially pragmatic and relies on common sense. If you come from a culture where communication is very direct, you may wish to soften your demeanour and tone so as not to appear threatening.
Communication styles vary most between Anglophone and Francophone parts of the country. Francophones are generally more indirect than Anglophones, although less so than the French. They also tend to be more exuberant than Anglophones. Anglophones do not generally interrupt someone who is speaking. They consider it rude not to let a person complete their thought before entering the discussion. Francophones are more likely to interrupt another speaker.
Canadians communicate more by the spoken word rather than non-verbal expressions. Non-verbal expressions are only really used to add emphasis to a message or are part of an individual’s personal communication style.
Canadians like their space and prefer to be at an arm’s length when speaking to someone.
Canadians are reticent to discuss their personal lives with business associates. They expect people to speak in a straightforward manner and to be able to back up their claims with examples. They do not make exaggerated claims and are suspicious of something that sounds too good to be true.

Business Meetings

Canadians begin meetings with a minimal amount of small talk although one should expect to spend a few minutes exchanging pleasantries and the like. In Quebec there may be more time spent on relationship-building.
Meetings are generally well-organized and adhere to time schedules. They tend to be informal and relaxed in manner even if the subjects being discussed are serious. When meeting with Anglophones, meetings may seem more democratic as all participants will engage and contribute. Meetings with Francophones, due to a greater respect for hierarchy and position, may revolve more around the most senior attendees.
Meetings in Canadian companies are used to review proposals, make plans, brain-storm and communicate decisions. Attendees will generally represent a variety of levels and experiences; all are expected to express opinions.
When presenting information, it is important to have facts and figures to substantiate claims and promises. Canadians are essentially rational and logical and thus they will not be convinced by emotions, passion or feelings.

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BLOGSPOT:
CANADA MILITARY NEWS-Refugees 45.2 Million a year 2014/Vietnamese Boatpeople-Canada love/ BC Civil Liberties suits cost Canadians $$$$Millions- Canadian troops torturing Afghan Taliban /Gov. Assisted Refugee Resettlement/some Canada military news posts on other bds 2005-2012/old Saddam Hussein trick- purpose of middle east war 2 create war and dump refugees on other nations VS thousands of churches and communities sponsored Vietnamese Boatpeople if they wld stay in our communities /EDUCATION is needed -people on boats 2 Italy spend $$$$thousands 2 illegally cross-/
http://nova0000scotia.blogspot.ca/2015/05/canada-military-news-bc-civil-liberties.html

BLOGSPOT:

CANADA MILITARY NEWS: PAGE 1 Canada does need more Immigrants- NOT Refugees – come on Europeans and Asia with your smarts and culture- we’d love u have u- SOME FACTS ON CANADA LAWS AND REGS.-/Passports/always blogs links./PAGE 1 OF PAGE 2

http://nova0000scotia.blogspot.ca/2015/06/canada-military-news-canada-does-need.html

BLOGGED: PAGE 2
CANADA MILITARY NEWS: PAGE 2- Canada does needs more Immigrants NOT Refugees- come on Europe and Asia with your smarts and your culture- we'd love 2 have u /Rules/Regs/Reports/Agreements/Passports/Refugge/Links PAGE 2 of page 1
http://nova0000scotia.blogspot.ca/2015/06/canada-military-news-canada-does-need.html

Major Laurence Roche ‏@ArmyPost 2h2 hours ago

Learning the Lingo - 3-page feature on military linguists in October's @soldiermagazine | http://viewer.zmags.com

/publication/cc5ae4aa#/cc5ae4aa/31 …

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Friday, July 3, 2015

i am

relaxation and scripts for self-help, personal change and fulfilment

relaxation exercise

i am

about relaxation, scripts and self-help

using and changing scripts - what the 'i am' words mean

making tapes or script recordings

be assured...

Jessica Andrews - Who I Am

body language - basics and introduction

body language is more than body positions and movements

body language definitions

body language - background and history

body language - nature or nurture?

body language and evolution

the six universal facial expressions - recognized around the world

body language analysis

context

sufficient samples/evidence

culture/ethnicity

body language is relative to age and gender

faking/deception

boredom, nervousness and insecurity signals

body language - translation of gestures, signs and other factors - quick reference guide

body language signs translation

body language warning

eyes - body language

mouth - body language

head - body language

arms - body language

hands - body language

handshakes - body language

legs and feet - body language

personal space

mirroring - matching body language signals

body language of seating positioning in relation to others

body language in different cultures

flirting, courtship, dating and mating - sexual body language

female indications of interest in a male

male interest in females

stages of courtship

bowing and curtseying body language

body language glossary

body language references sources and books

other audible signals

empathy, trust, diffusing conflict and handling complaints

empathy skills - for relationships, communications, complaints, customer retention, conflict and levels of listening types

trust - and understanding the other person's standpoint

listening

levels of listening - 'effective listening'

levels and types of listening

handling complaints and customer retention in organizations

trust and rapport training to improve customer service

Communicate effectively with culturally diverse persons

Contents

The communication process

The essential nature of communication

Show respect for cultural diversity in all communication with clients, families, staff and others

Why don’t they speak English?

Use communication constructively to develop and maintain effective relationships, mutual trust and confidence

Communication strategies

Where language barriers exist, make efforts to communicate in the most effective way possible

Why do cultural misunderstandings happen?

Areas of misunderstanding

Polite forms of language

Communicate effectively with culturally diverse persons

Contents

The communication process

The essential nature of communication

Show respect for cultural diversity in all communication with clients, families, staff and others

Why don’t they speak English?

Use communication constructively to develop and maintain effective relationships, mutual trust and confidence

Communication strategies

Where language barriers exist, make efforts to communicate in the most effective way possible

Why do cultural misunderstandings happen?

Areas of misunderstanding

Polite forms of language

Training Manual on Victims of Torture

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Effects of Torture on Social Functioning:^{Note 10}

Factors that May Compound Effects of Torture:^{Note 11}

Maximizing the Reliability of the Testimony^{Note 17}